Author: K.B. Vogelman

K.B. Vogelman has a Bachelor of Science degree in Administration of Justice that included a 3-month internship on the Wichita Police Department. A 22-year career in retail Loss Prevention management and investigations included advanced training certification in deceptive language analysis from a renowned former Israeli Police Department polygrapher. Personally conducting company investigations, taking witness interviews and written confessions into the thousands, these were used to pursue prosecutions through engagements with local, state and Federal law enforcement agencies across 26 states. One such interstate Internet fraud investigation resulted a letter of commendation from the Director the Secret Service, United States Treasury Department. Switching careers to a top tier technology company, an on-going 14+ year tenure has produced certifications in training, Business Process Improvement, and PMP project management with global experience.

John the Baptist – Inside and Outside the Bible

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

Fierce opponents of Christianity treat John the Baptist as a real historical figure as does a Roman Jewish historian. The Gospels feature John the Baptist as a prominent figure in the life of Jesus of Nazareth.

Author of the eyewitness Gospel of John recognizes John the Baptist as the one who testified about the Light whom he identified as Jesus Christ.^[1] Gospel of Mark begins immediately by declaring Jesus to be the Son of God, then declares John the Baptist fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah 40:3 preparing the way for the LORD.^[2]

“John the Baptist Preaching” by Giambattista Fontana, 16th Century.

Priests and Levites questioned John the Baptist about his true identity who denied he is the Messiah. Referencing Isaiah 40:3, the Baptist said it was a prophecy about himself as the forerunner of the Messiah:

^{JN 1:23} He said, “I am the voice of one crying out in the wilderness, ‘Make straight the way of the Lord,’” as the prophet Isaiah said. _(NSRV)

^{IS 40:3} A voice cries out: “In the wilderness prepare the way of the LORD, make straight in the desert a highway for our God. _(NSRV)

Affirming the existence of John the Baptist is the Muslim religion. John the Baptist aka Yahya is referenced in four different books of the Quran where he is described as respectful and obedient to his parents; a devout, noble and chaste person – a prophet and a witness to the truth of the “Word” of God.^[3]

Gospel of Luke and the Quran both describe the miraculous circumstances of the birth of John the Baptist to the barren, aging Elizabeth. Both tell of her husband, Zachariah (Zakariya), being struck dumb when an angel delivered the message he was to be a father.^[4]

^{Surah: 21:89-90a}“And (remember) Zakariya, when he cried to his Lord… So We listened to him: and We granted him Yahya: We cured his wife’s (Barrenness) for him.”

Another of the four Quran references establishes additional common ground with Judaism and Christianity. John the Baptist is placed in the same echelon of revered Godly Jewish leaders Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Noah, David, Solomon, Job, Joseph, Moses, Aaron and…Jesus.^[5]

Judaism is another passionate opponent of Christianity. Nevertheless, the Jewish Encyclopedia makes references to the life and teachings of both Jesus and John the Baptist:

“The whole picture of John the Baptist and of Jesus as bearers of good tidings to the poor has the stamp of greater truthfulness.”– Jewish Encyclopedia^[6]

Flavius Josephus was a Pharisee member of the Sanhedrin chosen as a general to lead the Jewish military, was then captured by the Romans and became their Jewish historian. In his monumental work, Antiquity of the Jews, he significantly referenced John the Baptist.^[7]

“…John, that was called the Baptist for Herod slew him, who was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise virtue, both as to righteousness towards one another, and piety toward God, and so to come to baptism; for that the washing [with water] would be acceptable to him, if they made use of it, not in order to the putting away [or the remission] of some sins [only], but for the purifications of the body; supporting still that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by righteousness.” – Josephus

According to Josephus, during a trip to Rome Herod Antipas stayed with his half-brother Herod Philip (their father was the late King Herod) and met Philip’s wife, Herodias, sister of Agrippa the Great.^[8] The two became paramours who conspired to move in together and later marry.

“…Herodius took upon her to confound the laws of our country, and divorced herself from her husband while he was alive, and was married to Herod [Antipas], her husband’s brother of the father’s side; he was tetrarch of Galilee; but her daughter Salome was married to Philip, the son of Herod, and tetrarch of Galilee…” – Josephus ^[9]

Unbeknownst to Herod Antipas, his current wife discovered the affair. In a preemptive move, she requested to be sent to the castle of Macherus near her Arabian King father, Aretas.

Insulted by the treatment of his daughter, Aretas sent his army to do battle with the troops of Herod Antipas allegedly over a border dispute. Aided by secret troop support of Herold Philip, King Aretas defeated the army of Herod Antipas.^[10]

“Herod, who feared lest the great influence John had over the people might put it into his power and inclination to raise a rebellion (for they seemed ready to do anything he should advise) thought it best, by putting him to death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into difficulties, by sparing a man who might make him repent of it when it would be too late. Accordingly, he was sent a prisoner, out of Herod’s suspicious temper, to Macherus, the castle I before mentioned, and was there put to death…” – Josephus ^[11]

Josephus wrote some of the Jews believed the reason for the destruction of Herod Antipas’ army was a punishment from God for killing the Baptist.

“Now, some of the Jews thought that the destructions of Herod’s army came from God, and that very justly, as a punishment of what he did against John, called the Baptist, for Herod slew him, who was a good man…” – Josephus ^[12^]

Using the word “repent,” a word that carries a specific religious meaning, it had special connotations to a Pharisee such as Josephus.^[13] In Judaism, to repent first requires an act against God’s Law followed by the transgressor’s confession, regret and a promise not to repeat it, but Antipas had no desire to do any of this.^[14]

Matthew and Mark attribute the reason for the beheading of John the Baptist to a grudge held by Herodias for being shamed by him for her illicit lifestyle.^[15] Josephus attributed a political reason for his execution to the perception that he was a problematic political threat to Antipas.

Reasons why John the Baptist was executed can are two distinctly different things, yet both can be true. Either way, the problem was solved with the death of John the Baptist.

An insider source may very well have been Joanna of the Gospels, household manager of Herod Antipas.^[16] If not herself, she would have had inside contacts who had knowledge of intimate behaviors in the Herod Antipas’ family.

John the Baptist is established inside and outside the Bible as a real historical figure. Does the existence of John the Baptist lend credibility to the Gospel accounts of the life of Jesus of Nazareth?

Updated May 4, 2025.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.>

REFERENCES:

Resurrection – Did It Actually Happen?

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

Resurrection – Did It Actually Happen?

Resurrection of Jesus has been debated for centuries spawning many questions and theories.^[1] People cannot easily wrap their minds around the impossible concept of being dead and buried, then coming back to life.

Medical or scientific tests cannot determine if a living individual was previously dead for days, thus a Resurrection cannot be ascertained scientifically. In the end, it makes no difference if the Resurrection occurred today or 2000 years ago.

Swirling are controversial attempts trying to explain the Resurrection. The tomb was not really empty; the witnesses visited the wrong tomb; the body of Jesus was misplaced or stolen; the third day prophecies are not a factor; the post-crucifixion person the witnesses encountered was just a spirit; etc.^[2]

Circular logic is a common criticism.^[3] In this case, the Gospels cannot be used as proof of the Resurrection because the only proof comes from the Gospels and if the believability of the Gospels is in question, then Gospels cannot be used as evidence.

Gospels are accounts or reports of what happened, not proof that something did or did not occur. Included are identities, statements and quotes of witnesses; and descriptions of events – some detailed, some paraphrased.

No statement or report by one person will ever completely provide all the details of a witnessed incident. Some details may not have been as important to emphasize over other information or simply the information was not known to a particular writer.

Comparing one Gospel to another is one of the most effective ways to assessed overall content credibility of these accounts, reports or statements. As with any investigative case, gaps in one account may be detailed in another.

No resurrection case can be made without eyewitnesses who would have to bridge three separate events – life, an incontrovertible death, and evident life again. Credible witnesses would have to be able to say with certainty that the person whom they once knew, was then known to be dead and is now alive again behaving as before death.

Witnesses would be expected to attest to their ability to resume a pre-established personal connection with the resurrected person whom they knew before death occurred – the continuum of a shared personal relationship.

Visual recognition would not be enough to dispel the notion of having seen a vision or an apparition. Witnesses also would be expected to affirm activities of the resurrected person are associated with life itself such as a conversation, eating, drinking, walking, and other physical activities.

A prime example is the resurrection of Lazarus whom Jesus raised from being dead after four days. A week later, Lazarus came to a dinner event with Jesus days before his own death and resurrection.

The Witnesses

First of the eyewitness statements of the resurrected Jesus, aside from angels, comes from Cleopas accompanied by his traveling partner, most likely his wife.^[4] Characteristics described are several – walking; carrying on a conversation over a long period time; references to his own teachings before his death; reclining at the table; breaking the loaf of bread and…praying.

Next is the profound report of Mary Magdalene’s encounter.^[5] She recognized Jesus, whom she believed was dead and buried, exclaiming “Rabonni!” (teacher) and wanted to hug him.^[6]

Peter, who had witnessed the empty tomb with the folded burial linens, also met with the Resurrected Jesus. The only mention of Peter’s encounter is in Luke’s investigative Gospel account.^[7]

Ten Disciples, the Cleopas couple and other followers of Jess were in a locked room excitedly sharing stories of Resurrection encounters. Suddenly Jesus himself stood among them saying, “Peace be with you.”^[8]

Luke reports they were all startled and “terrified” thinking they were seeing a “ghost.”^[9] Jesus responded:

^{LK 24:38-39} “‘Why are you frightened, and why do doubts arise in your hearts? Look at my hands and my feet; it’s me! Touch me and see; a ghost does not have flesh and bones like you see I have.’ When he had said this, he showed them his hands and his feet.”_(NET)

Noticing they required further proof, Jesus asked, “‘Do you have anything here to eat?’ So they gave him a piece of broiled fish, and he took it and ate it in front of them.”^[10] Bridging back to the time before he was crucified, Jesus told them to think back to their experiences together:

^{LK 24:44, 47-48} “These are My words which I spoke to you while I was still with you, that all things which are written about Me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled… ‘Thus it is written, that the Christ would suffer and rise again from the dead the third day, and that repentance for forgiveness of sins would be proclaimed in His name to all the nations, beginning from Jerusalem. You are witnesses of these things.’” _(NASB)

Missing the occasion entirely was the Disciple Thomas.^[11] When he finally arrived that Sunday evening, Disciple John told him they had seen Jesus.

Skeptical, Thomas was not buying any of it. “Unless I see the wounds from the nails in his hands, and put my finger into the wounds from the nails, and put my hand into his side, I will never believe it!”^[12]

Eight days passed when the Disciples regathered in the same house with the door locked, but this time Thomas was present.^[13] Once again, Jesus suddenly appeared in the room and, after a brief greeting, got straight to the point.

Speaking directly to Thomas, Jesus said “Put your finger here and see my hands. Reach out your hand and put it in my side.^[14] Do not doubt but believe.”^[15]

Thomas touched the physical body of Jesus and witnessed the proof of his miraculously healed pierced hands and side. Thomas’ excited utterance was telling: “My Lord and my God!”^[16]

John’s eyewitness Gospel continued beyond where Matthew, Mark and Luke left off. Describing the third appearance of the resurrected Jesus to some of the Disciples, he describes the scene on the shore of the Sea of Tiberas (Sea of Galilee, Sea of Gennesaret or Sea of Kinneret).^[17]

Seven disciples, five identified by name as Peter, Thomas, Nathanael, and the sons of Zebedee (James and John) encountered Jesus who teased them; performed another fishing miracle recognized by the author; and met the Disciples at a campfire, cooked breakfast, ate and conversed with them.^[18]

Recognition by his own family – his mother, Mary, and brother, James – are better witnesses than any other.^[19] According to Jewish historian Josephus, James the brother of Jesus, died a martyr’s death at the hands of the Sanhedrin for proclaiming to the end that Jesus is the Messiah who had been resurrected.^[20]

Gospel accounts of the Resurrection of Jesus came in the form of witnesses, actions, words and behavior of the various others. Witnesses include angels, women of Galilee, the koustodia, members of the Jewish leadership, Disciples and others.

Do the Gospels meet the criteria for demonstrating a genuine Resurrection had occurred – did Jesus actually rise from the dead?

Updated March 31, 2024.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1] Habermas, Gary R. “Resurrection Research from 1975 to the Present: What are Critical Scholars Saying?” 2005. Dr. Gary R. Habermas. <http://garyhabermas.com/articles/J_Study_Historical_Jesus_3-2_2005/J_Study_Historical_Jesus_3-2_2005.htm> Saifullah, Usman Sheikh, et. al. “Textual Reliability / Accuracy Of The New Testament.” Islamic Awareness. 2007. <http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Bible/Text/Bibaccuracy.html> Lowder, Jeffery Jay. “Independent Confirmation and the Historicity of Jesus (1997).” The Secular Web. n.d. <https://infidels.org/library/modern/jeff_lowder/indconf.html> Seidensticker, Bob. “Contradictions in the Resurrection Account.” Patheos.com. April 2, 2012. <https://www.patheos.com/blogs/crossexamined/2012/04/contradictions-in-the-resurrection-account-2>
[2] “Resurrection.” Infidels.org. n.d. <http://infidels.org/library/modern/theism/christianity/resurrection.html> Lowder, Jeffery Jay. “Historical Evidence and the Empty Tomb Story.” Infidels.org. <http://infidels.org/library/modern/jeff_lowder> Lowder, Jeffery Jay. “How Not to Argue Against the Historicity and Resurrection of Jesus.” The SecularWeb. n.d. <https://infidels.org/library/modern/jeff_lowder/edelen.html> “New Testament.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11498-new-testament> Holding, James Patrick. “Please Pardon This Interruption.” Creation Ministries International. 2009. <http://creation.com/review-jesus-interrupted-by-bart-ehrman> Steinhart, Eric. “Some Resurrection Theories.” Eric Steinhart. n.d. http://www.ericsteinhart.com/articles/reztheories.pdf> Qu’ran. An-Nisa 157, Al-Maeda 110. <http://search-the-quran.com> “Did Jesus Resurrect From the Dead in an Invisible Spirit-Body?” 4Jehovah.org. 2014. <http://4jehovah.org/the-resurrection-of-jesus-a-spirit-body> “Was Jesus Resurrected as an Invisible Spirit?” Tower to Truth Ministries. n.d. Archived URL. <http://www.towertotruth.net/dialoguept2.htm>
[3] “Circular Reasoning.” Logically Fallacious. 2020. <https://www.logicallyfallacious.com/logicalfallacies/Circular-Reasoning> Van Der Zee, Tim. “Circular arguments are perfectly valid.” The Skeptical Scientist. 2017. <http://www.timvanderzee.com/circular-arguments> Andrews, Ben. Atheist Republic. 2020. <https://www.atheistrepublic.com/blog/ben-andrews/circular-reasoning>
[4] Luke 24:13-27.
[5] John 20:16. “Centuries later, archaeologists opened the tomb of Jesus.” News24hours. photo. 2016. <https://news24hours.in/2016/10/31/centuries-later-archaeologists-opened-the-tomb-of-jesus-christ>
[6] John 20:18.
[7] Luke 24:34.
[8] Luke 24:36 – NET, NIV, NLT, NRSV. John 20:19 – NET, NIV, NLT, NRSV, NASB, NKJV.
[9] Luke 24:36-37. NET. CR Mark 16:14.
[10] Luke 24:38-43. NET. CR Mark 5:43; Luke 8:55.
[11] John 20:24.
[12] John 20:25. NET. CR Matthew 28:17.
[13] John 20:26.
[14] John 20:27
[15] John 20:27. NRSV.
[16] John 20:28. NET, NIV, NASB, NRSV, NKJV.
[17] “The Sea of Galilee (Kinneret).” Jewish Virtual Library. 2020. <https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-sea-of-galilee> “Gennesaret.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6583-gennesaret-lake-of>
[18] John 21:4-14.
[19] Acts 1:14
[20] Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. Book XVIII, Chapter III.3.n.d <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false >

Death of Jesus By Crucifixion?

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

Death of Jesus By Crucifixion?

Sometimes called the “swoon theory,” it is one of the common charges by critics and skeptics against the Resurrection contending Jesus of Nazareth did not die by crucifixion.^[1] In fact, one of the world’s major religions teaches that Jesus never died on the cross, even if he was crucified!^[2]

Roman crucifixions were rife during the century before and after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 AD historically documented by renowned authorities of antiquity such as Josephus, Tacitus, Suetonius, Cicero and Seneca the Younger.^[3] Declaring Jesus did not die by crucifixion defies these historical accounts.

Crucifixion by the Romans was fully intended to cause death under the most excruciatingly painful and humiliating circumstances. Victims could do nothing to save themselves after a group of military men had fastened the severely flogged victims, typically by nails, to wooden beams and suspended them above the ground.

Required for a certified death claim today, three facts are to be established: when death occurred; where it occurred and the identity of the person who died.*^[4] Typically a coroner, law enforcement official, or medical expert are required to attest to these circumstances.

In the age of antiquity, confirmation of a death was basically the same requiring witnesses. No modern technologies and sciences were available meaning a death determination relied on observations and simple common sense – lifeless; not breathing; limp, cold and still; obvious mortal wounds or other morbid evidence.

All four Gospel accounts report that Jesus was killed by crucifixion, witnessed by many. Luke‘s account brought the outcome of the crucifixion to dramatic closure stating:^[5]

^{LK 23:46} “Then Jesus, crying with a loud voice, said, “Father, into your hands I commend my spirit.” Having said this, he breathed his last.” _(NRSV)

Roman quaternion, the execution team consisting of four guards and the exactor mortis, a centurion, were charged with crucifying Jesus.^[6] At the risk of dire consequences for failure to perform their duty, their job was to ensure death on the cross was successfully carried out.^[7]

^{MK 15:39}“So when the centurion, who stood opposite Him, saw that He cried out like this and breathed His last, he said, “Truly this Man was the Son of God!”’”_(NKJV) ^[8]

An “excited utterance” made by the centurion is considered to be a factual, truthful statement making it an exception to the legal hearsay rule. United States Federal Law defines an “excited utterance” as being made spontaneously, under the influence of a startling event, before the witness has had an opportunity for reflection.^[9]

Quaternion wanted to ensure Jesus was truly dead prompting a soldier to thrust a spear into his side. Convinced Jesus was dead, the quaternion decided not to break his legs to hasten death.^[10]

In the Gospel account of John, the author “testified” that he witnessed the death of Jesus on the cross:

^{JN 19:35} “And he who has seen has testified, and his testimony is true; and he knows that he is telling the truth, so that you also may believe.” _{(NASB, NKJV)}

Seven women are identified in the Gospel accounts as being present at the crucifixion: Jesus’ own mother Mary and her sister, Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James and Joseph, mother of the sons of Zebedee, Mary the wife of Clopas, Salome and many other women from Galilee.^[11]

Witnessing the crucifixion and death of Jesus, Joseph of Arimathea, a member of the Jewish Council, reached the same conclusion as the exactor mortis, the quaternion and John:

^{JN 19:38} “…Joseph of Arimathea, who was a disciple of Jesus, though a secret one because of his fear of the Jews, asked Pilate to let him take away the body of Jesus.” _(NRSV)

Leaving the three crosses bearing their victims under the guard of the quaternion, the centurion left his post to provide the confirmation to Pilate that Jesus was truly dead:

^{Mk 15:44-45} “Pilate was surprised to hear that he was already dead. Summoning the centurion, he asked him if Jesus had already died. When he learned from the centurion that it was so, he gave the body to Joseph.” _(NIV)

Pilate officially affirmed that Jesus was dead. He then commanded the centurion to give the body of Jesus to Joseph of Arimathea.

While Joseph approached Pilate, Nicodemus went to buy burial spices. Nicodemus, another rich man and member of the Jewish Council, was a secret follower of Jesus out of fear of the Sanhedrin.^[12]

Along the way back to Golgotha, Joseph was joined by Nicodemus with the burial spices.^[13] Sunset was fast approaching and a quick burial preparation was needed before the Sabbath began.^[14]

Up close and personal, Joseph and Nicodemus removed the body of Jesus from the cross, carried it to the nearby unused tomb of Joseph, wrapped it and applied at least 75 pounds of burial spices. Finished, they rolled a large stone in front the entrance of the tomb with the body of Jesus inside, witnessed by two women each named Mary from Galilee.^[15]

^{MT 27:59-60} “And Joseph took the body and wrapped it in a clean linen cloth, and laid it in his own new tomb, which he had hewn out in the rock; and he rolled a large stone against the entrance of the tomb and went away.” _(NASB)

Eleven people are identified in the Gospel accounts as eyewitnesses to the death of Jesus – four Roman quaternion, the centurion; two members of the Jewish Council; two blood relatives of Jesus including his own mother; two mothers of Disciples; and one Disciple as well as Pilate’s legal affirmation.

Diversity of these witnesses, in addition to the strength in numbers, builds a level of unimpeachable evidence in today’s court of law. Noteworthy is that Judaism has always acknowledged the death of Jesus by crucifixion.

Did Jesus truly die by crucifixion?

* When a victim cannot be identified, the name John Doe or Jane Doe are often substituted.

Updated April 27, 2025.

REFERENCES:

[1] Goldman, Russell. “Jesus Christ May Not Have Died on Cross?” ABC News. 2010. <https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/jesus-christ-died-cross-scholar/story?id=11066130> Samuelsson, Gunnar. Crucifixion in Antiquity. 2011. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck. <https://www.academia.edu/4167205/Crucifixion_in_Early_Christianity> Bowen, Bradley. “Defending the Swoon Theory – Part 1: What is the Swoon Theory?” Patheos.com. 2019. <https://www.patheos.com/blogs/secularoutpost/2019/06/01/defending-the-swoon-theory-part-1-what-is-the-swoon-theory> “The Swoon Theories.” ReviewOfReligions.org. 2010. <https://www.reviewofreligions.org/2323/the-swoon-theories> Greenberg, Eric J. “Jesus’ Death Now Debated by Jews.” Jewish Journal. 9 Oct. 2003. Reprinted from The Jewish Week. <http://jewishjournal.com/news/world/8546>
[2] Assaqar, Monqith Ben Mahmoud. Central Intelligence Agency. “Was Jesus Crucified For Out Atonement?” n.d. p 6. <https://www.cia.gov/library/abbottabad-compound/CE/CE620DF8125A29EA4358631CA285D178_DID_JESUS_DIE_ON_THE_CROSS-.pdf> “Did Jesus die on Cross?” Islamic Circle of North America. 2016. <https://www.icna.org/did-jesus-die-on-cross> Quran Surah 4:157. Trans. Abdullah Yusuf Ali. n.d. <http://search-the-quran.com/search/Surah+An-Nisa/8>
[3] Josephus, Flavius. The Complete Works of Josephus. William Whitson. 1850. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false> Lucian of Samosata. “The Death of Peregrine.” The Works of Lucian of Samosata. Volume IV. p 82 <http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl420.htm> Cicero, Marcus Tullius. “Secondary Orations Against Verres. Book 5. 70 B.C. <https://web.archive.org/web/20160430183826/http://www.uah.edu/student_life/organizations/SAL/texts/latin/classical/cicero/inverrems5e.html> Tacitus, Gaius Cornelius. The Annals. Books X, XV 109 AD. <http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/annals.html> Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. “To Novatus on Anger+.” Moral Essays. “Seneca’s Essays Volume I.” Book III. The Stoic Legacy to the Renaissance. 2004. <http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_1.html#ANGER1> Seneca. “De Vita Beata+.” “To Gallio On The Happy Life.” Moral Essays. “Seneca’s Essays Volume II.” Book VII. The Stoic Legacy to the Renaissance. 2004. <http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_2.html#%E2%80%98BEATA1> Suetonius (C. Suetonius Tranquillus or C. Tranquillus Suetonius). The Lives of the Twelve Caesars. “Julius Caesar.” #74. <http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html> “Crucifixion.” JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2011. <http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4782-crucifixion>
[4] “Physicians’ Handbook on Medical Certification of Death.” 2003 Revision. p 9. Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. <http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/misc/hb_cod.pdf> “Death Certificate Requirements.” Education Requirements. 2015. <https://web.archive.org/web/20181031044856/http://www.educationrequirements.org/death-certificate-requirements.html> “Certificate of Death.” Two Package Template. photo. n.d. <https://twopackage.com/12-death-certificate-templates-free-download>
[5] Luke 23:46. Most English translations use these exact words. CR Matthew 27:50; Mark 15:39. Gospels Matthew 27:58; Mark 15:43; Luke 23:50-52; John 19:38. CR Mathew 27:57; Mark 15:43; Luke 23:50; John 19:38.
[6] Zugibe, Frederick T. “Turin Lecture: Forensic and Clinical Knowledge of the Practice of Crucifixion.” E-Forensic Medicine. 2005. <http://web.archive.org/web/20130925103021/http://e-forensicmedicine.net/Turin2000.htm>
[7] Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Moral Essays. “Seneca’s Essays Volume I.” 1928-1935. Book III. “To Novatus on Anger+.” Book I, p xviii. 2. The Stoic Legacy to the Renaissance. <http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_1.html#ANGER1> Brand, Clarence Eugene. Roman Military Law. pp 80, 99-100, 103, 141-142. 2011. https://books.google.com/books?id=TWexDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91&lpg=PA91&dq=sacramentum+violation&source=bl&ots=cx2dAVJJkA&sig=ACfU3U0hRifTdhWkPhOVpdke7eZAyPEseQ&hl=en&ppis=_e&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjsi7Xz___nAhVDWK0KHeYHDLMQ6AEwBXoECAwQAQ#v=onepage&q=insubordination&f=false>
[8] CR Matthew 27:54, John 19:30.
[9] “Excited Utterance.” Cornell University Law School. <http://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/excited_utterance> “Federal Rules of Evidence Article VIII. Cornell University Law School. Rule 803. Exceptions to the Rule Against Hearsay.” <http://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/fre/rule_803>
[10] John 19:31-33.
[11] John 19:35.
[12] Mark 15:40-41. CR Luke 23:48-49. John 19:25. CR Matthew 4:21-22; Mark 1:19-20, 10:35; Luke 5:10.
[13] Mathew 27:57; Mark 15:43; Luke 23:50.John 3:1; 7:45; 19:39.
[14] John 19:39. See NetBible footnote #5 conversion of Roman pounds to U.S. measurement pounds. <http://classic.net.bible.org/verse.php?book=Joh&chapter=19&verse=39>
[15] Matthew 27:60-61. CR Luke 23:55.