Unreal Birth Circumstances – Jesus of Nazareth

 

Circumstances of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth entailed a three-way confluence of events from locations in Rome, Persia and Nazareth, hundred miles apart from each other and months in the making. Incredibly, it all culminated in a small town where none of the figures of the story lived.

Two Gospel accounts cover the Nativity story, Matthew and Luke, each complimenting the other with few overlapping details. According to Luke, Caesar Augustus issued a registration decree although the Roman story behind the story is not told.

Caesar Augustus was designated Pater Patrie, Father of the County,  on February 5, 2 BC, by the Roman Senate. The achievement was one the 35 highlights in The Deeds of Divine Augustus listing the accomplishments of Caesar over his 25 years of rule.[1]

To honor Augustus in 2 BC, planning began for a special registration of the entire Roman Empire including the provinces, not just the typical census for citizens of Rome. Each registrant was expected to swear an oath of allegiance to Augustus.[2]

Logistics to execute this registration decree required considerable planning, time and resources, especially in a era without electricity, computers, phones, etc. For town criers, praeco in Latin, to announce the decree in far reaching locations would take months.[3]

Meanwhile, Magi “from the East” (Persia, by reputation and historical context), according to Matthew, saw stellar and planetary alignments signaling something exceptional was about to happen – the birth of a King of Judea. Not just any King – what they saw was so awe-inspiring, they were moved to act.

Believing wholeheartedly in their observations, they planned a journey that would cover hundreds of miles by camel in a quest to find this special baby King. Much more than just a tribute visit, they intended to present the baby with precious gifts and worship him.

Greek text of Matthew uses the word proskynēsai or proskuneo translated as “worship.” Meaning of the word is “to do reverence to;” “bow down or bow down before;” “kneeling or prostration to do homage (to one).”[4]

Not knowing their final destination, the Magi initially headed for Jerusalem, the government center of Judea. The city seemed to be a good place to get information and they went to the palace of Judea’s King Herod to ask him.

In another concurrent series of events while the Magi were on their journey to Jerusalem, Joseph and Mary were busy going about their daily business. Preparing for the arrival of their new baby, they were planning his birth in Nazareth without any clue what was about to befall them.

Suddenly, everything changed – a praeco announced Augustus’ registration decree that compelled the betrothed couple to do the unthinkable. On short notice, an unplanned 90-mile trek on foot to register in Bethlehem to comply with the decree was required in-spite-of Mary’s imminent childbirth.[5]

No one or thing trumped a decree by a Roman Caesar and although it is not definitively stated that the decree had a deadline, Rome expected prompt compliance. Evidence of this urgency is seen by the immediate response of Joseph and Mary.

People were required to register in the home town of their family linage. In the case of Joseph and Mary, it was Bethlehem, the home town of King David who lived about a 1000 years earlier.

No doubt Mary would give birth before they returned to Nazareth where Mary should have been with her family and friends. If the praeco had announced the decree about two weeks earlier or later, Jesus would not have been born in Bethlehem.

Weary from the unplanned long trip from Nazareth, Joseph and Mary discovered lodging accommodations in Bethlehem were full and they had to stay in a stable. As if this situation wasn’t challenging enough, Mary went into labor in the stable and was forced to give birth to Jesus using a manger for his crib.

According to Luke, the birth of Jesus was heralded by a host of angels. Shepherds left their flocks in the fields and went to Bethlehem to see this sight.

Arrival in Jerusalem by the Magi entourage was big news since it was not often that Magi visited the city being off the major trade routes…and it likely caused a stir.[6] Furthermore, Judaism shunned the mystic practices of the Magi even though they were favored by the Herod.

King Herod immediately granted the Magi access to his palace when the they arrived. Magi informed him of a new King of Judea, one with his own star – it was most shocking news to the reigning King.

At that point, Herod did not know any further details and dismissed the Magi. However, it can be surmised the King believed that the Magi knew something profound, both considering their reputation and the fact of their long journey to honor and worship this baby.[7]

Herod summonsed the Jewish chief priests and scribes and asked if they knew where Christos was to be born. No ambiguity surrounded the question, the Jewish religion experts knew exactly what Herod was asking.

An ancient prophecy from the Jewish prophet Micah foretold the Messiah was to be born in “Bethlehem in land of Judah.[8] Herod believed the prophecy as evidenced by his next actions.

Planning to exchange this prophetic knowledge to learn the exact location of the baby, Herod secretly called the Magi to return back to the palace. The Magi unwittingly agreed to the deal.

After leaving Herod’s palace, “his Star” reappeared at some point to the Magi and it shone over Bethlehem corroborating the information. Still not exactly sure of their final destination, they headed South toward Bethlehem just a short distance away.

Far off the path of a major trade route, unexpectedly the Magi from Persia arrived in Bethlehem. If their arrival was big news in Jerusalem, image what it was in the much smaller town.

Everyone knows everyone else’s business in a small town so finding the child would not have been difficult. The Magi found the new family, then presented the newborn with their precious gifts and worshiped him.

Not all the drama was finished. Warned in a dream, according to Matthew, the Magi did not return to Jerusalem to tell Herod where the Christos was located.

Once Herod realized he had been duped, he commanded that all the male babies in the Bethlehem area under 2 years of age to be killed. Actions taken by the King were consistent with his ruthless reputation.

Joseph and Mary with Jesus escaped the King’s horrific murders by hiding in Egypt until Herod died shortly thereafter. Historian Josephus describes in detail events that transpired during the final weeks leading up to the King’s death. Eventually Joseph and Mary returned to Nazareth where they raised Jesus and his siblings.

Was it just a coincidence that a 3-way confluence of events culminated in Bethlehem, home town of King David … or was it a divine plan? 

 

Updated October 8, 2024.

 

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Luke’s Nativity – An Investigative Breakdown

 

Luke and Matthew are two different perspectives about the Nativity circumstances of Jesus of Nazareth, yet they have the common threads of the historical timeline, geographic locations and the key figures.

In the very opening paragraph of Luke, the author states that his letter is based on the eyewitness accounts “from the beginning”:

LK 1:2-4 “Inasmuch as many have undertaken to compile an account of the things accomplished among us, just as they were handed down to us by those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and servants of the word, it seemed fitting for me as well, having investigated everything carefully from the beginning, to write it out for you in consecutive order, most excellent Theophilus; so that you may know the exact truth about the things you have been taught.” (NASB)

Starting with the birth of John the Baptist, Luke’s account describes circumstances not found in any other Gospel. Zechariah, a Levite Jewish priest, had been chosen to represent his priestly division to offer incense to God.

While inside the Temple, the angel Gabriel appeared to him specifically described as standing on the right side of the altar. God’s message delivered by angel Gabriel:  Zechariah’s wife, Elizabeth, would become pregnant with a son to be named John. Zechariah didn’t believe it.

Zechariah and Elizabeth were considered “advanced in years.” It is a relative term considering that girls married and began having children as soon as nature allowed, about 13 years of age.[1]

Gabriel went on to foretell the child’s purpose in life, even that the baby would be filled with the Holy Spirit before he was born.  Doubting Gabriel’s message, Zechariah was struck dumb during his wife’s pregnancy.

Luke does not describe Elizabeth’s pregnancy as miraculous. Two Greek words referencing a miracle are used elsewhere in Luke, but not used here for Elizabeth.

In the other instances, the Greek word dunamis is translated to English using such words as “miracles,” “deeds of power,” “power of the Spirit,” or “mighty works.” Greek word semelon is translated with such words as “miracle,” “miraculous sign,” “sign from heaven.”[2]

Six months later in Nazareth about 90 miles away, Mary, who had been betrothed to Joseph, was going about her daily routine. Gabriel met her saying, “”Greetings, favored one! The Lord is with you.” The angel’s message continues to be quoted:

LK 1:31-32 “And behold, you will conceive in your womb and bear a son, and you shall name Him Jesus. He will be great and will be called the Son of the Most High; and the Lord God will give Him the throne of His father David…” (NASB)

Mary is quoted using the personal pronoun “I” asking Gabriel how she could have a baby when she was a virgin. Mary and the angel Gabriel are the only ones present making Mary the primary source of the conversation. Gabriel went on to explain the Holy Spirit would impregnate her and she would give birth to the Son of God:

LK 1:35 “The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you; therefore the child to be born will be holy; he will be called Son of God. (NRSV)

Elizabeth re-enters Luke’s account when Gabriel told Mary that she was 6 months pregnant. After Gabriel departed, Mary hurried to go visit her. Upon hearing Mary’s greeting, Elizabeth’s babe leapt within her.[3]

Presumably only Mary and Elizabeth are present for this greeting dialog, similar to Zechariah and Gabriel. Elizabeth’s blessing statement is consistent with both Gabriel’s message and her greeting to Mary. If Elizabeth was not available to the author, then Elizabeth’s praise containing four personal pronouns of “me” and “my” was restated by Mary:

“Blessed are you among women, and blessed is the fruit of your womb! But why is this granted to me, that the mother of my Lord should come to me? Blessed is she who believed, for there will be a fulfillment of those things which were told her from the Lord. For indeed, as soon as the voice of your greeting sounded in my ears, the babe leaped in my womb for joy. Blessed is she who believed, for there will be a fulfillment of those things which were told her from the Lord.”

Less obvious, although a very important detail, Elizabeth knew about Mary’s immaculate conception before Mary told her. It was only a few days after Gabriel told Mary she would conceive the Son of God.

Mary’s pregnancy had yet to show any symptoms and it seemed only Mary knew about it. A woman’s pregnancy is not naturally known even to the mother, barring modern medicine, until 2-4 weeks or later after conception.[4]

Upon hearing Elizabeth’s blessing, Mary was filled with emotion. Her detailed passionate praise is quoted with the personal pronouns “my” and “me” five times. The primary source of Mary’s praise strongly appears to be Mary herself.

Matthew articulates Joseph’s reaction to discovering Mary’s pregnancy months later after she returned from the trip to visit Elizabeth and he was understandably upset. Joseph was considering a divorce, according to Matthew, until a visitation by Gabriel informed him Mary had not cheated, rather the Holy Spirit impregnated her as a fulfillment of prophecy.

Luke’s Nativity identifies two Roman rulers not found in Matthew serve as historical date markers in addition to King Herod – Caesar Augustus and Quirinius governing in Syria.

Another specific detail is a decree issued by Caesar Augustus. This became the compelling factor for Mary to travel to Bethlehem in her late stage of pregnancy where she was forced to give [5] birth in a stable because all the inns were full.

Luke quotes an angel appearing to shepherds outside of Bethlehem announcing his birth and a larger number of angels in the sky praising God. The source of the quote were the shepherds.

LK 2:10-14 “…behold, I bring you good tidings of great joy which will be to all people. For there is born to you this day in the city of David a Savior, who is Christ the Lord…And suddenly there was with the angel a multitude of the heavenly host praising God and saying: “Glory to God in the highest, And on earth peace, goodwill toward men!”(NKJV)

Immediately, the shepherds quickly went into the little town of Bethlehem and found Mary and Joseph with Jesus lying in a manger confirming the angel’s birth announcement. What the shepherds witnessed, they told to people who marveled at their report.

Matthew, on the other hand, outlines a different Nativity aspect telling how the Magi had observed signs in the sky that prompted their long journey to find the newborn “King of the Jews.” After consultation with Jewish religious experts, King Herod revealed to the Magi where they could locate the babe. When the Magi found Jesus, the family had moved to a house.

Luke adds two other details. Eight days later during the Jewish circumcision event, Joseph and Mary officially named their baby Jesus as each were separately instructed by Gabriel. At the 30-day mark according to the Law, the parents presented Jesus to the Lord in the Temple in Jerusalem and offered a sacrifice which required a priest.

Much of Luke’s Nativity account is unique yet it is in sync with Matthew. Four key points are common to Luke and Matthew – Jesus was born in Bethlehem; Nazareth is his hometown; Herod is King with governing authority of country of Judea. Does Luke’s Gospel Nativity meet the standards of credibility?

 

Updated December 13, 2023.

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REFERENCES:

[1] Luke 1:7, 18. NASB, NKJV. West, Jim. “Ancient Israelite Marriage Customs.” Quartz Hill School of Theology. n.d. http://www.theology.edu/marriage.htm>  Rich, Tracey R. “Marriages.” Judaism101. 2011. <http://www.jewfaq.org/marriage.htm>
[2] Luke 4:14; 10:13; 19:37; 23:8. NetBible.org. Greek text. dunamis <1411>, semelon <4592>
[3] Slatzman, Russell. “Biblical travel: How far to where, and what about the donkey?” Aleteia. 2017. https://aleteia.org/2017/01/24/biblical-travel-how-far-to-where-and-what-about-the-donkey> Kosloski, Philip. “Mary traveled a highly dangerous path to visit Elizabeth. Aleteia. 2019. <https://aleteia.org/2019/05/31/mary-traveled-a-highly-dangerous-path-to-visit-elizabeth>
[4] “Month by Month.” Planned Parenthood. 2020. <https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/pregnancy/pregnancy-month-by-month> “Home pregnancy tests: Can you trust the results?” Mayo Clinic. 2019. <http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/getting-pregnant/in-depth/home-pregnancy-tests/art-20047940> “How long does it take to know I’m pregnant?” nct.org. n.d. <https://www.nct.org.uk/pregnancy/am-i-pregnant/how-long-does-it-take-know-im-pregnant>  Marple, Kate. Ed. “Early signs of pregnancy: When will I feel symptoms?” babycenter.com. 2019. <https://www.babycenter.com/getting-pregnant/how-to-get-pregnant/early-signs-of-pregnancy-when-will-i-feel-symptoms_10372077>
[5] The Nativity Story. TheBridgeChurch. image. n.d. <http://www.thebridgechurch.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/The-Nativity-Story.jpg>

Matthew’s Nativity – An Investigative Breakdown

 

Easy to forget, the Christmas Nativity story didn’t happen in a single night – it is a time-lapsed compilation of events that took place over many weeks, if not months. Two Gospels, Luke and Matthew, provide the accounts of the Nativity story.[1]

Luke’s account starts just before the birth of Jesus of Nazareth with an angelic birth announcement that Mary would give birth, even though she was a virgin, by way of the Holy Spirit in fulfillment of the Isaiah 7:14 prophecy. Marking the time in history with Augustus, Quirinius and Herod, it ends with baby Jesus being presented to God at the Temple.[2]

Matthew’s account starts with the angelic pregnancy announcement to Joseph that Mary would give birth to the Son of God. Next chapter jumps to the arrival of the wise men translated as “Magi” in some Bibles.[3]

Talmud references to Magi include other names they were known by: “fire worshippers” and “Guebers” from Persia.[4] Having a long history of persecuting the Jews, the Magi were well-known, feared and disliked.[5]

Magian priests, on the other hand, were highly regarded in the former Persian and Greek Empires for their mysterious abilities. Among them, they had a reputation for reading the stars and making accurate predictions.[6]

Plato and historian Strabo referred to the Magi as “king makers,” a reputation that had to be known to Herod. Greek Hellenism, prevalent in the Jewish culture, accepted all religions including Zoroastrianism, the main religion of the Magi.[7]

Openly embracing Hellenism, Herod incorporated Greek inscriptions and architectural features in the enhanced Jewish Temple. Causing great consternation to Jewish fundamentalists and their eventual execution, the event marked the beginning of the end for Herod.[8]

Setting the scene in Matthew, King Herod of Judea was in his Jerusalem palace rather than one of his other palaces in Herodium, Jericho and Caesarea.[9] Soon he would move to Jericho to live out his final days with a most miserable health condition…but not yet.[10]

As strange as it may seem, purveyors of mysticism were introduced by Matthew into the Jewish Nativity story of Jesus. Calling upon Herod at his palace, the Magi were promptly welcomed.

Shockingly, these Wise Men said something most alarming to King Herod. Revealing the reason for their visit, the Magi asked a question:

MT 2:2 “Where is He who has been born King of the Jews? For we have seen His star in the East and have come to worship Him.” When Herod the king heard this, he was troubled, and all Jerusalem with him.”(NKJV)

Any king, especially Herod, would be distressed when these king-maker Magi said they were looking for a newborn “King of the Jews.” Future tense was not used, rather present tense – he was already a king.

More disconcerting, the Magi said they had “come to worship Him” and it probably seemed very likely the people might want to do the same. Word leaked out to the people of Jerusalem of what the Magi had said and not surprisingly, they were also “troubled.”

At the very least, the rumor mill presented an air of uncertainty which always tends to worry a populace. If the child was the foretold Messiah, such speculation certainly stirred the pot even more.

Herod’s next action clearly demonstrates he believed the Magi when he “gathered all the chief priests and scribes together asking them where the Christ was to be born.”[11] Change in language is of special note:  the Magi inquired about the birth of a “King of the Jews” while Herod’s quote uses the Greek word Christos meaning Messiah.

Whether this difference in language is attributable to the author of Matthew or if Herod concluded the King of the Jews meant the Messiah, it didn’t make any difference. Chief priests and scribes understood exactly what Herod was asking as evidenced by their specific answer.

Jewish chief priests and scribes – members of the Jewish leadership – reported to Herod that a Ruler was prophesied to be born “In Bethlehem of Judea.” Unambiguous, their answer included the quote from the prophecy of Micah 5:1/2.

MT 2:5-6 “…So they said to him, ‘In Bethlehem of Judea, for thus it is written by the prophet: “But you, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, Are not the least among the rulers of Judah; For out of you shall come a Ruler Who will shepherd My people Israel.”’”(NKJV)

Previous mention of seeing ”his star” was initially not an attention-getting detail to the King. Believing the Magi’s declaration, this detail had been overshadowed by the bombshell announcement that there was another King of the Jews.

Undoubtedly, the Magi saw something in the night sky compelling them to travel hundreds of miles “from the East;” however, they didn’t say when they had seen “his star.” Herod soon realized these details were important – the time of the star’s appearance would serve to determine the child’s age.

Actions by Herod in the remainder of the account are telling. For this ruthless King with a reputation of murdering anyone who might be a threat, there was only one course of action – eliminate the threat. Every step taken from that point forward focused on this outcome.

Secretly Herod called the wise men to second meeting with the intent to determine from them what time the star appeared.[12] Not having received an answer to their initial question, the Magi agreed to meet with Herod again.

Information from the second meeting served to be useful to both parties. Answering the original question of the Magi regarding the location of the child, Herod “sent them to Bethlehem.” In return, Herod was generally able to determine when the Magi saw “his star” and thus the age of the child.[13]

Worshiping no one or thing, Herod set the trap. Cunningly, Herod said to the Magi, “when you have found Him, bring back word to me, that I may come and worship Him also.”

MT 2:9-10 “When they heard the king, they departed; and behold, the star which they had seen in the East went before them, till it came and stood over where the young Child was. When they saw the star, they rejoiced with exceedingly great joy.”(NKJV)

After the follow-up meeting with Herod, the Magi saw a second appearance of the “star,” a definitive clue that opens the door for the science of astronomy to plausibly explain it. In a very rare scenario during an 18-month period in 3-2 BC, an extremely rare series of conjunctions occurred in the cosmos centered around Jupiter.

June 17, 2 BC, about nine months after the first Jupiter-Venus very close conjunction, Jupiter, known as the king star, came into an occultation conjunction (overlapping/fused) with Venus, known as the Queen or mother star. Much bigger and brighter, the two brightest stars in the sky formed one star.[14]

Jupiter entered a retrograde and appeared in the South over Bethlehem. Finding the child in Bethlehem was probably not difficult – in a small town, everyone knows what’s what, just ask. Finding Jesus in a house, the Magi “fell down and worshiped Him.” And when they had opened their treasures, they presented expensive gifts to Him: gold, frankincense, and myrrh.”[15]

Now it becomes clear why Herod wanted to determine the age of the child. Realizing he had been deceived when the Magi avoided him, true to the reputation of Herod’s ruthless, cruel profile, he commanded all the children 2 years old and younger in the districts of Bethlehem to be killed. 

MT 2:16 “Then Herod, when he saw that he was deceived by the wise men, was exceedingly angry; and he sent forth and put to death all the male children who were in Bethlehem and in all its districts, from two years old and under, according to the time which he had determined from the wise men.”(NKJV)

More than capable of such evil deeds, there were no bounds for Herod’s diabolical behavior. Torturing people for mere suspicions, Herod killed countless Jews, not to mention killing his brother, three sons, a former Jewish High Priest, and plotted to have all the “principal men” of Judea killed upon his own death.[16]

King Herod’s drastic action confirmed five points the King believed:  the Magi’s declaration; the Jewish religious experts, the Micah prophecy; Christos had been born…and in Bethlehem.

Oft overlooked is a key critical detail provided by Matthew after King Herod died. Archelaus, King Herod’s son, became his successor, a fact that is consistent with secular history.[17]

At least 20 specific details are laid out in a logical sequence in 22 verses, much that is corroborated by history and science. Does this strengthen the credibility to Matthew’s Gospel account about the birth of Jesus of Nazareth?

 

Updated December 20, 2023.

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REFERENCES:

All Bible quotes are from the New King James Version.

[1]  McLeay, Simon. StPeters. “The Nativity According to Matthew.” image. 2018. <https://www.stpeters.org.nz/media/_home_slide_image/th-18-12-02-the-nativity-matthew.jpg
[2] Luke 1:5; 2.
[3] Matthew 2:1. Netbible.org. <http://classic.net.bible.org/verse.php?book=Mat&chapter=2&verse=1>
[4] Soncino Babylonian Talmud. Ed. Isidore Epstein. The Soncino Press. 1935-1948. Sanhedrin 98a.  <https://israelect.com/Come-and-Hear/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_98.html#98a_22> Sanhedrin 74b. <https://israelect.com/Come-and-Hear/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_74.html>  “Babylonia.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10263-magi>  Cicero, M. Tullius. Divination. 44 BC. 1.46. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0043%3Abook%3D1%3Asection%3D46> Cicero. Divinations. 1.2.
[5] Segal, Eliezer. “The Menorah and the Magi.” Sources. 1997. <https://people.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/Shokel/971219_MagiMenorah.html> Missler, Chuck. “Who Were the Magi?” Idolphin.org.1999. <http://www.ldolphin.org/magi.html>
[6] “Zoroastrianism.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/15283-zoroastrianism>
[7] Plato. Alcibiades 1. Trans. W.R.M. Lamb. c. 390 AD. 1 121e-1232. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0176%3Atext%3DAlc.%201%3Asection%3D122a>  Herodotus. The Histories. Book 1, Chapters 107-122. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0126>Herodotus. The Histories.  Book 3, Chapters 30, 60-79.  Missler. “Who Were the Magi?”  Plato. Republic. Trans. Paul Shorey. 9.572e. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0168%3Abook%3D9%3Asection%3D572e>  Strabo. Geography. Book 11.9 n.d. <https://web.archive.org/web/20221018120345/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0198:book=11:chapter=9&highlight=magi>  Polybius. Histories. Book 34, Chapter 2. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0234:book=34:chapter=2&highlight=magi> Herodotus.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herodotus-Greek-historian> Herod the Great.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2017. <http://www.livius.org/articles/person/herod-the-great/?> “Edom (ē`dŏm), Idumaea, or Idumea.” The Free Dictionary. 2017. <http://www.bible-history.com/herod_the_great>  Bunson, Matthew. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Idumaea.” 2002. <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624> “Herod the Great Biography.” TheFamousPeople. image. n.d. <https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/herod-the-great-37596.php> Diogenes Laertius. Lives of Eminent Philosophers. 8.1; 9/7. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0258:book=9:chapter=7&highlight=Magians%2C> “Pythagoras.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pythagoras>  “Cyrus takes Babylon.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2018. <http://www.livius.org/sources/content/herodotus/cyrus-takes-babylon> “Democritus.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Democritus> Diogenes. Lives. 9.7.
[8] Burrell, Barbara; Gleason, Kathryn L.; Netzer, Ehud. “Uncovering Herod’s Seaside Palace. BAS Library. 1993. <https://www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/19/3/7>  Geva, Hillel.  “Archaeology in Israel:  Jericho – the Winter Palace of King Herod.” Jewish Virtual Library. 2019. <https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jericho-the-winter-palace-of-king-herod>  “Herodium-King Herod-s Palace-Fortress.” Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2000. < https://mfa.gov.il/mfa/israelexperience/history/pages/herodium%20-%20king%20herod-s%20palace-fortress.aspx>  Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews.  Trans. William Whitson. Book XV, Chapter XI. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false> Josephus, Flavius. Wars of the Jews. Trans. William Whitson. Book I, Chapter XXI.  <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false>  “Herod the Great.” Bible History Online. 2016. <http://www.bible-history.com/herod_the_great> “Herod.” Jewish Virtual Library. n.d. <https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/herod>
[9] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter VI.
[10] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XV, Chapter VIII; Book XVI, Chapter V; Book XVII, Chapters VI; VIII. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXI.  “Hellenism” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7535-hellenism>
[11] Matthew 2:4. Greek text. NetBible.org. <http://classic.net.bible.org/verse.php?book=Mat&chapter=2&verse=4>
[12] Matthew 2:7.
[13] Matthew 2:8, 16.
[14] Phillips, Tony.  “A Christmas Star for SOHO.”  NASA Science | Science New. 16 May 2000.  <http://web.archive.org/web/20170516003444/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2000/ast16may_1>  “Venus And Jupiter Will Pass 42 Arc seconds Apart On May 17.” Press Release – Marshall Space Flight Center. SpaceRef.com. 2000. <http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=1819>  Carroll, Susan S. “The Star of Bethlehem:  An Astronomical and Historical Perspective.”1997. Twin Cities Creation Science Association. n.d. <http://www.tccsa.tc/articles/star_susan_carroll.pdf>
Martin, Ernest L. The Star of Bethlehem – The Star That Astonished the World. Associates for Scriptural Knowledge. 2003. Chapter 4.  Larson, Frederick A. The Star of Bethlehem. 2014. <http://www.bethlehemstar.net/setting-the-stage/why-are-we-hearing-this-now>  Haley, A. S. “The Star of Bethlehem and the Nativity.” Anglican Curmudgeon. 2009.   <http://web.archive.org/web/20171016111146/http://www.newmanlib.ibri.org/Papers/StarofBethlehem/75starbethlehem.htm> Bunson, Matthew.  Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Jupiter.” 2002. <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624>
[15] Matthew 2:11. NKJV. Larson, Frederick A. The Star of Bethlehem. 2014. <http://www.bethlehemstar.net/setting-the-stage/why-are-we-hearing-this-now> “Retrograde.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2023. <https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-body-systems-2237111>
[16] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XV, Chapters III-VII, IX, XIII, XVI; Book XVI, Chapter XI; Book XVII, Chapters VI, IX.  Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapters X, XXVII, XXXIII.
[17] Matthew 2:22.