Author: K.B. Vogelman

K.B. Vogelman has a Bachelor of Science degree in Administration of Justice that included a 3-month internship on the Wichita Police Department. A 22-year career in retail Loss Prevention management and investigations included advanced training certification in deceptive language analysis from a renowned former Israeli Police Department polygrapher. Personally conducting company investigations, taking witness interviews and written confessions into the thousands, these were used to pursue prosecutions through engagements with local, state and Federal law enforcement agencies across 26 states. One such interstate Internet fraud investigation resulted a letter of commendation from the Director the Secret Service, United States Treasury Department. Switching careers to a top tier technology company, an on-going 14+ year tenure has produced certifications in training, Business Process Improvement, and PMP project management with global experience.

Daniel, Chief of Wise Men – a Hebrew Magi?

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

Daniel, Chief of Wise Men – a Hebrew Magi?

 

Magi from the East, known by a name that is the root word for “magic,” seems at complete odds with a Jewish Messiah account about Jesus of Nazareth. Perhaps surprisingly, there is a Jewish connection with these mystics from the East.

King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon had wiped out Jerusalem, raided the Temple, and ended the House of David’s succession of sitting kings. Treasures taken as spoils of war included Hebrew people with particular desired qualities.[1]

As a captured Hebrew lad, Daniel and three other Hebrew boys were chosen to be educated in the school for Chaldeans to serve King Nebuchadnezzar. They would join an eclectic group of royal wise men known as the chakkiym, a cabal that included “the magicians, the astrologers, the sorcerers, and the Chaldeans.”[2]

Chakkiym literally means “wise men” or simply “wise.”[3] Two other words, Aramaic kisday and Hebrew Kisdiy, each having the same meaning of “Clod-breakers,” are both specifically translated as “Chaldean.”[4] Kisday appears in the Bible only in the first five chapters of the Book of Daniel.

One day Nebuchadnezzar challenged the chakkiym to interpret his dream.[5] Gladly they agreed … of course, once Nebuchadnezzar revealed his dream.

Suspicious, the king said to the chakkiym that if they truly had mystical powers, they should be able to know the dream itself as well as its interpretation. Under the threat of death and destruction, the chakkiym were commanded to reveal both the dream and its interpretation.

Realizing they were backed into a corner, the Chaldeans informed the King that his request was impossible because no one could do what he was asking. In a fit of rage, Nebuchadnezzar ordered all the chakkiym to be executed.

All this was unknown to Daniel until Arioch, captain of the King’s guard, came to arrest and execute him as one of the kingdom’s chakkiym. Surprised by this nasty, unexpected turn of events, Daniel asked Arioch for details and then convinced him to be allowed to approach the King.

Nebuchadnezzar granted a days’ reprieve and that night Daniel with his friends prayed for the revelation of the dream. Next day Daniel said to King Nebuchadnezzar, “The secret which the king has demanded, the wise men, the astrologers, the magicians, and the soothsayers cannot declare to the king. But there is a God in heaven who reveals secrets…”[6]

Daniel then revealed both the King’s dream and its interpretation. Completely humbled, Nebuchadnezzar was in awe and the King bowed down to Daniel, then rewarded him with riches and authority.

Nebuchadnezzar made Daniel head of all the kingdom’s chakkiym.[7] According to the prophet Jeremiah, the name for this chief position of the wise men in Babylon was called Rab-mag.[8]

Hebrew Word Study defines the word Rab-mag as “a foreign word for Magian.” Strong’s definition is “a foreign word for a Magian; chief Magian; Rab-Mag, a Babylonian official.”[9]

Handwriting on the palace wall appeared during Babylonian ruler Belshazzar’s drunken party. At the urging of Belshazzar’s wife, Daniel was summoned to interpret the message.

Daniel’s interpretation of the message foretold the Babylonian kingdom would be overthrown – it happened that very night.[10] It is the last time the word chakkiym appears in the Bible.[11]

Chaldeans did not disappear with the takeover by the Persians. Over the 500 years before the birth of Jesus of Nazareth, abilities and skills of the Chaldeans were recognized by the Persians, the Greeks and the Romans.

Wise men Chaldeans and Persians sages meshed well with their mystical reputations. Daniel’s reputation in Babylon landed him in a position as a top leader in the Persian kingdom ruled by King Cyrus, foretold by prophet Isaiah.[12]

Cyrus, aka Cyrus II or Cyrus the Great (580 – c. 529), King of the Persian Empire, espoused Zoroastrianism as the main religion.[13] Zoroastrian priests known as Magi, like the chakkiym, were viewed as wise men and considered to have great royal influence in political affairs.[14]

Pythagoras (c. 570-499 BC), a Greek philosopher and mathematician said he “journeyed among the Chaldaeans and Magi” to learn their ways.[15] Xenophon (c. 430-350 BC), a Greek intellect, wrote of Cyrus’s rule, “Influences of the Magi, continued in force with each successive king even to this day.”[16]

Herodotus (c. 484-420 BC), a Greek historian, gave an account corroborated by historian Flavius Josephus of a Magus who attempted a silent coup through trickery. It paved the way to Darius ultimately to become a Persian ruler.[17]

Darius, aka Darius I or Darius the Great (522-486 BC), assigned Daniel as one of the three top government positions over the satraps (province governors and chiefs) with the intention to place Daniel as administrator over all of them.[18] His two jealous counterparts conspired to have Daniel eliminated setting the stage for the famed story of Daniel in the lion’s den.

Other noted Hellenistic era Greeks provided additional insights to these mysterious wise men of Babylon and Persia.[19] Accounts of Chaldeans and Magi reveal striking similarities between them.[20]

Plato (circa 428-347 BC), the famed Greek philosopher, called the Magi “king-makers.” He also wrote that a king’s son at the age of 14 is taught “the magian lore of Zoroaster.”[21]

Cicero (106-43 BC), the famed Roman orator and lawyer, identified Magi as Persians.[22] Roman Historian Diodorus (c. 75-20 BC) wrote, “the Chaldeans in Babylon and the other astrologers succeed in making accurate prophecies.”[23]

Coexisting with the Roman Empire at the end of the millennium was the Parthian Empire. Considered by some to be the second Persian Empire, the Parthians also treated wise men and Magi with high regard.[24]

Renowned Greek historian, Strabo (c. 64 BC – 21 AD) lived in the same era as Jesus of Nazareth. He referenced Poseidonius, a Greek philosopher, saying “the Council of the Parthians, according to Poseidonius, consists of two groups, one that of kinsmen, and the other that of wise men and Magi, from both of which groups the kings were appointed.”[26]

“And the priests of the Egyptians, the Chaldeans, and Magi, distinguished for their wisdom above those around them, obtained from our predecessors honour and authority…” – Strabo [27]

Throughout the centuries, Magi and Chaldean wise men had a reputation for their ability to forecast the future, as king-makers, and their astronomy abilities. When the Magi came to the Jerusalem palace of Herod, without hesitation the King granted them immediate access and did not question their request.

MT 2:2 “Where is He who has been born King of the Jews?” the Magi asked, because they had “seen his star and came to worship him.” (NASB, NKJV)

Daniel was the head of the Babylonian wise men, a Rab-mag, then in the succeeding Persian Empire, he was a top official that included the Magi. Can the conclusion be drawn that Daniel was a Hebrew Magi?

 

Updated January 6, 2024.

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1] Daniel 1. CR Jeremiah 22:25; Habakkuk 1:6.
[2] Daniel 2:2. NKJV. “How Accurate is the Calendar at this Website?” Church of God Study Forum.n.d. <http://www.cgsf.org/dbeattie/calendar/about>  Cohen, Stephen. Calligraphy. “Daniel.” photo. 2016. <https://images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;_ylt=AwrEePCFCi5jwWoAmwcPxQt.;_ylu=Y29sbwNiZjEEcG9zAzEEdnRpZAMEc2VjA3BpdnM->?p=hebrew+Daniel+images&type=sdff_9527_FFW_ZZ&hsimp=yhs-3&hspart=iba&grd=1&ei=UTF-8&fr=yhs-iba-3#id=1&iurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.judaicalligraphy.com%2FDaniel.jpg&action=click> 
[3] Daniel 2:12. Net.bible.org. Hebrew text. “chakkiym 02445.”  2445. LexiConcordance.c0m.
[4] Daniel 1:4. Net.bible.org. Hebrew text. kasdiy <03778>  Daniel 2:12. Net.bible.org. Hebrew text. “kasday <3779>” 3778. LexiConcordance.c0m.  3779 LexiConcordance.c0m.   Guisepi, Robert. “The Chaldeans, The Chaldeans (Neo-Babylonian) Empire.” International World History Project. Ed. Robert A. Guisepi. 2007. <http://history-world.org/chaldeans.htm> “Chaldea.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. <https://www.britannica.com/place/Chaldea>
[5] Daniel 2.
[6] Daniel 2:27. NKJV.
[7] Daniel 2:46-48.
[8] Jeremiah 39:3, 13.
[9] RabMag H72348. Hebrew Bible Lexicon. http://lexiconcordance.com/search6.asp?sw=7248&sm=0&x=29&y=12>
[10] Daniel 5.  CR Isaiah 13; Jeremiah 25:12.  Herodotus. The Histories. 1.191-193; 4.1. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D1>
[11] Daniel 5:15.
[12] Isaiah 45:1; Daniel 6. CR Daniel 9, 10.
[13] Hooker, Richard. “Mesopotamia: The Persians.” Washington State University. 1996. <http://web.archive.org/web/20110514001358/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/PERSIANS.HTM> CYRUS ii. Cyrus I.  Encyclopædia Iranica. 2021. <https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cyrus-ii>  Cyrus. JewishEncyclopedia.com. <https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4828-cyrus>  Cyrus the Great. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2021. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cyrus-the-Great> “Zoroastrianism.”  ReligionFacts.com. 2018. <http://www.religionfacts.com/zoroastrianism/index.htm> “Zoroastrianism.” PersianEmpire.info. 2007. <http://persianempire.info/zoro.htm>  Hooker, Richard. “Mesopotamia: The Persians.” Washington State University. 1996. <http://web.archive.org/web/20110514001358/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/PERSIANS.HTM> “Zoroaster.” Encyclopædia.com. 2016. <https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/philosophy-and-religion/ancient-religion-biographies/zoroaster> Gascoigne, Bamber.  “History of Zoroastrianism.”  HistoryWorld.net. n.d. <http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab71>  “Zoroastrianism.”  BBC|The British Broadcasting Corporation. 2009. <http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/zoroastrian> Eduljee, K. E. “Greek Perceptions of Zoroaster, Zoroastrianism & the Magi.” Zoroastrian Heritage. 2011. <http://zoroastrianheritage.blogspot.com/2011/04/greek-perceptions-of-zoroaster.html>  “Zoroastrianism.” BBC|The British Broadcasting Corporation. 2009. “The Archaemenian.”<http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/zoroastrian> Jafarey, Ali Akbar.  “The Achaemenians, Zoroastrians in Transition.”  CAIS|The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies. 1998.  <http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Religions/iranian/Zarathushtrian/achaemenian_zarathushtrian.htm> Soules, Jeremiah. “For the Glory of Ahuramazda:  The Political Effects of Zoroastrianism on Early Achaemenid Persia.” University of Wisconsin – Eau Claire. 2010. pp. 18-21. <http://minds.wisconsin.edu/handle/1793/60912?show=full>
[14] Herodotus, The Histories. Book 3, Chapters 30, 60-79. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0126:book=3:chapter=30&highlight=smerdis >  Plato. Republic.  Book 9, section 572e. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0168:book=9:section=572e&highlight=magi>
[15] Laertius, Diogenes. Lives of Eminent Philosophers. 8.1; 9/7. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0258:book=9:chapter=7&highlight=Magians%2C> “Pythagoras.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pythagoras>  “Cyrus takes Babylon.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2018. <http://www.livius.org/sources/content/herodotus/cyrus-takes-babylon>
[16] Xenophon. Cyropaedia. Walter Miller, Ed. c.370 BC. 4.5; .8.1. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Xen.+Cyrop.+1.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0204>“Xenophon.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Xenophon>
[17] Herodotus. Histories. Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. n.d, Book XI, Chapter III. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false>  Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. Book XI, Chapter III. n.d. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false>
[18] Daniel 6:2-3. Darius I. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2021. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Darius-I>  Darius I. JewishEncyclopedia.com <https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4902-darius-i>  Darius iii. Darius I the Great. Encyclopædia Iranica. 2021. <https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/darius-iii> Darius I. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2021. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Darius-I> Daniel 6. Herodotus. Histories. 3.90. Xenophon. Cyropaedia. 4.5.>  “The Book of Daniel.” ATPCM. photo. 2019. <https://shelleybos.blogspot.com/2019/08/the-book-of-daniel-full-biblical-movie.html>
[19] Gascoigne, Bamber.   “Iran (Persia) timeline.” HistoryWorld.net. n.d. <http://www.historyworld.net/timesearch/default.asp?conid=static_timeline&timelineid=759&page=1&keywords=Iran+%28Persia%29+timeline> Eduljee. “Greek Perceptions of Zoroaster, Zoroastrianism & the Magi.”>
[20] “Democritus.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Democritus> Diogenes. Lives. 9.7.>
[21] Plato. Republic. Trans.Paul Shorey. 9.572e. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0168%3Abook%3D9%3Asection%3D572e>  Plato. Alcibiades 1. Trans. W.R.M. Lamb. c. 390 AD. 1 121e-1232. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0176%3Atext%3DAlc.%201%3Asection%3D122a>  “Plato.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Plato>
[22] Cicero, M. Tullius. Divination. Trans. William Armistead Falconer. 44 BC. 1.46. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0043%3Abook%3D1%3Asection%3D46> Cicero. Divinations. 1.2.
[23] Diodorus. Library. Prologue; 15.50. “Diodorus Siculus.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Diodorus-Siculus>  CR. Diodorus Siculus. Persus Tufts. “Library.” Book 17, Chapter 112. Section 1, #2. n.d. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D17%3Achapter%3D112%3Asection%3D2> Diogenes. Lives of Eminent Philosophers. “Prologue.”#2. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0258:book=1:chapter=prologue&highlight=zoroaster>
[24] Lendering, Jona. History of Iran – Parthian Empire. 2018. <http://www.iranchamber.com/history/parthians/parthians.php>
<http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0043%3Abook%3D1%3Asection%3D2>  Cicero. Divinations. 1.90 <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0043%3Abook%3D1%3Asection%3D90>
[25] Pasidonius of Rhodes.  MT MacTutor. April 1999. <https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Posidonius>  Poseidonius. Britannica.com. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Poseidonius>
[26] Lendering, Jona. History of Iran – Parthian Empire. 2018. <http://www.iranchamber.com/history/parthians/parthians.php>  CR Poseidonius. Britannica.com.
[27] Strabo. The Geography of Strabo. 17-23 AD.  H. L. Jones, ed. 1.2. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0239:book=1:chapter=2&highlight=magi>

Quirinius, Governor of Syria When Jesus Was Born?

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

Quirinius, Governor of Syria When Jesus Was Born?

 

Quirinius (Cyrenius in Greek) was famous in Rome as a powerful Consul, the highest Senate rank achievable.[1] His resume included stints as a provincial governor in Crete & Cyrene, Galatia, Pamphylia, possibly Asia and was a war hero for his military victories – all prior to 4 BC.[2]

Jewish historical views of Quirinius are quite different, known as the infamous governor of Syria who in 6 AD imposed a Roman provincial taxation triggering a Jewish revolt.[3] Understandably, the contemporary Jewish reading audience of Luke would easily recognize a reference to Quirinius.

If not for the Nativity account in the Gospel of Luke, Quirinius would be all but forgotten. Governance of Quirinius presents probably the greatest challenge to validating the five tight date parameters established by Luke and Matthew for the birth of Jesus of Nazareth

Luke confirms Matthew‘s statement that Herod was King when Jesus was born during a time when Quirunius was governing Syria. Tightening the timeline, Luke adds two more defining parameters bringing the total to five – the rule of Caesar Augustus, his census decree, the reign of King Herod, Quirinius was governing in Syria plus a celestial star event.[4]

LK 2:1-3 “And it came to pass in those days that a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be registered. This census first took place while Quirinius was governing Syria. So all went to be registered, everyone to his own city.” (NKJV)

If there was a first registration associated with Quirinius, there had to be a second one, “This census first took place…”[5] Indeed, there is a second reference in the Books of Acts, the common author of the Gospel of Luke:

ACT 5:37 “After this man [Theudas], Judas of Galilee rose up in the days of the census [apographe], and drew away many people after him. He also perished, and all who obeyed him were dispersed.” (NKJV)

Greek texts use the word apographe, a noun meaning “a register; enrollment.” Muddling the situation, English Bible versions translate apographe using five different words – “census,” “registered,” “enrolled,” “numbering,” and “taxed.”[6]

Comparing the two events, Luke’s registration scenario is benign while the Acts scenario is circumstantially different – it involved an uprising. Neither scenario is associated with a Roman lustrum census that was last taken in 8 BC.[7]

According to secular history, a conundrum is posed because Herod’s death year and Quirinius governing in Syria do not sync with the 4 BC timeline. Evidence from outside secular history strongly suggests Herod’s death occurred during the years 2 -1 BC potentially changing the equation and leaves Quirinius as the X-factor.

Unique to the Gospels is Luke’s twice-used word hegemoneuo, a specific form of hegemon. Both words have different definition distinctions, yet are typically translated into English as “governor.”

Greek hegemoneuo means “to act as ruler” as in acting with the authority of a governor, a verb.[8] Root word is hegemon, a noun meaning “a leader, that is, chief person (or figuratively place) of a province: — governor, prince, ruler”[9] Luke and Acts uses the hegemon title reference 8 times and is used 19 times in the New Testament.

Just twice and only in Luke does the author exclusively use the verb hegemoneuo. Appearing in relatively very close proximity in the text, the word is used to describe responsibilities of two different rulers, Quirinius and Pilate:[10]

LK 2:2 “This census first took place while Quirinius was governing [hegemoneuo] Syria.”

LK 3:1 “Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius Pilate being governor [hegemoneuo] of Judea…” (NKJV)

Pilate was a Prefect and a Procurator in a Roman province appointed by Caesar, not a legate “governor” which required Consul rank.[11] Responsibilities included Roman financial affairs and vested judicial power over life and death decisions, essentially possessing the authority powers of a governor.[12]

Using exactly the same word hegemoneuo, the word is also used to describe Quirinius.[13] In the eyes of the Jews, the Roman distinctions of rank made little difference because both virtually had the same fearful Roman governing authority.

Not alone is Luke treatment of Romans in a governing position in Syria – so did Caesar Augustus and Josephus.[14] Caesar, in a letter, instructed Herod to seat three Syrian judges for the murder plot trial of Herod’s two sons calling out by name Saturninius and Pedanius as the two “presidents” of Syria, and the procurator Volumnius.[15]

“Caesar had ordered the court to be assembled…The presidents set first, as Caesar’s letters had appointed, who were Saturninus, and Pedanius, and their lieutenants that were with them, with whom was the procurator Volumnius.” – Wars of the Jews

Secular history recognizes Saturninus as the legate Roman governor of Syria circa 9-6 BC.[16] Varus was the Roman legate governor from at least 6-4 BC, perhaps into 3 BC and possibly again in 1 BC leaving a complete gap in 2 BC.[17]

Question:  who was the other “president” at the time of Herod’s death? Josephus didn’t say.

Independently, several 19th century historians tackled the Quirinus enigma. All still agreed Quirinius served in a governing capacity in Syria prior to his infamous 6 AD Roman legate governorship, but not all were in complete agreement with their conclusions and timelines.

Some historians concluded that Quirinius first governed in Syria sometime during 6-1 BC. Others narrowed the time frame to the years of 3-2 BC.[18]

Two 20th century archeological discoveries of ancient inscriptions may provide the strongest evidence that Quirinius governed twice in Syria. Research by historian expert Gerard Gertoux concluded these two inscriptions identify Quirinius as the governor of Syria during the 3-1 BC timeframe.[19] One inscription called out Quirinius by name…twice:

“Q[uintus] Aemilius Secundus s[on] of Q[uintus], of the tribe Palatina, who served in the camps of the divine Aug[ustus] under P. Sulpicius Quirinius, legate of Caesar in Syria, decorated with honorary distinctions, prefect of the 1st cohort Aug[usta], prefect of the cohort II Classica. Besides, by order of Quirinius I made the census of 117 thousand citizens of Apamea.” – Titulus Venetus inscription (English translation) [20]

Gertoux makes the case that Quirinius took a special census in 2 BC as part of the Breviarium of Augustus concluding a census in Apamea would have required the assistance of Judean King Herod, not possible if the King died in 4 BC. It could not be referring to the 8 BC lustrum census of the Roman Empire.

Multiple historian’s research indicates Quirinius did govern in Syria at some point during the years of 6-1 BC. Archeological evidence narrows the time frame even more.

Does evidence corroborate Luke’s statement that Quirinius governed in Syria at the time of a census registration decreed by Caesar Augustus while King Herod was alive?

 

Updated December 19, 2024.

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1] KJV. Kurenios <2958> Net.bible.org. <http://classic.net.bible.org/strong.php?id=2958&gt
[2] Gertoux, Gerard. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.”  Titulus Venetus (CIL III; ILS 2683).  Inscription. p 9.  <http://www.academia.edu/3184175/Dating_the_two_Censuses_of_Quirinius>   Consuls.” History of Ancient Rome. 2018. <http://www.unrv.com/government/consuls.php>   “Senatorial Provinces.” History of Ancient Rome. 2018. <http://www.unrv.com/government/senatorial-provinces.php>  “Consul.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2018. <http://www.livius.org/cn-cs/consul/consul.html>  “P. Sulpicius Quirinius.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2018. <http://www.livius.org/su-sz/sulpicius/quirinius.html>  Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. The Complete Works of Josephus. Trans. and commentary. William Whitson. 1850. Book XVIII., Chapter I.1. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false>  Bunson, Matthew.  Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Consuls; Crete and Cyrenaica.” <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624>
[3] Acts 5.  Smallwood, E. Mary.  The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian. 1981. pp 151-156.  <http://books.google.com/books?id=jSYbpitEjggC&lpg=PA151&ots=VWqUOinty4&dq=census%20Syria%20Rome&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false>  Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapters I-IV.
[4] Matthew 2. Luke 1-2.
[5] NRSV. Luke 2. Net.bible.org. Greek text. “protos” <4413>” Lexicon-Concordance Online Bible. n.d. <http://lexiconcordance.com> Smith, William; Wayte, William; Marindin, G.E., Ed. A Dictionary  of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 1890. “apographe.”
[6] Acts 5:37. BibleHub. com. lexicon. “582.” n.d. < https://biblehub.com/lexicon/acts/5-37.htm>  “G0582.” LexiConcordance..com. n.d. <http://lexiconcordance.com/greek/0582.html>  Smith, William; Wayte, William; Marindin, G.E., Ed. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 1890. “apographe.” <https://books.google.com/books?id=Cu89AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA403&lpg=PA403&dq=greek+word+for+census&source=bl&ots=LM1MjmCiJt&sig=1_yjJgyNxcCcSWZvf0QK69IJuMw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx0oPA04DYAhXo6YMKHebvAEwQ6AEIejAK#v=onepage&q=register&f=false> Bunson, Matthew.  Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Censor; Census.” <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624> 
[7] Smallwood. The Jews Under Roman Rule. p. 152.  Ando, Clifford. A Companion to the Roman Empire.  Ed. David s. Potter.  pp 178-179, 186.  2006.  Academia.edu. <https://www.academia.edu/649274/The_Administration_of_the_Provinces>
[8] Net.bible.org. Luke 2:1 footnote #5 and Greek text. “hegemoneuo <2230>”  Lexicon-Concordance Online Bible. Josephus. Antiquities. Book VIII, Chapter XV; Book X, Chapter IV; Book XIV, Chapters IX, XII; Book XVIII, Chapter VI.  Josephus. The Life of Flavius Josephus. n.d.  #9, #17.  Josephus. Wars of the Jews. Book I, Chapter XXVII.3. Josephus. Against Apion. Book II, #22.
[9] Net.bible.org. Luke 2:1 footnote #5 and Greek text. “hegemon <2232>” Lexicon-Concordance Online Bible. Josephus. Antiquities. Book VIII, Chapter XV; Book X, Chapter IV; Book XIV, Chapter IX; XII; Book XVIII, Chapter VI..  Josephus. Life. #9, 17.  Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXVII.  Josephus. Against Apion. Book II, #22.  “Pontius Pilate.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2019. <https://www.livius.org/articles/person/pontius-pilate>  “legate.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. <https://www.britannica.com/topic/legate-Roman-official> Carrier, Richard C. “Herod the Procurator:  Was Herod the Great a Roman Governor of Syria?” 2011. p. 7. <https://www.academia.edu/1203990/Herod_the_Procurator_Was_Herod_the_Great_a_Roman_Governor_of_Syria?email_work_card=view-paper> 
[10] Josephus. Wars. Chapter IX.  Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter XI; Book XVIII, Chapter V. “Tiberius.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2018. <http://www.livius.org/articles/person/tiberius>
[11] “Pontius Pilate.” Livius.org.  “legate.” Encyclopædia Britannica.  Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXIV.6, Book II, Chapter VIII, XIV. Josephus. Antiquities. Book XV, Chapter III,  Book XVII, Chapters IV & XX; Book XVIII, Chapter III; Book XIX. Chapter XIX; Book XX, Chapter I.
[12] “Procurator.” Livius.org.  “Governor (Roman).” Livius.org. <http://www.livius.org/gi-gr/governor/governor.html>  “Procurator.” Merriam-Webster. 2018. <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/procurator> “Procurator.”  Jewish Virtual Library. 2008. <https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/procurator>
[13] Net.bible.org. Luke 2:1 Greek text, footnote #5; “hegemoneuo <2230>”; “hegemon <2232>”; “hegemoneuo #2230” (Greek Word Study).  (Thayer); “hēgemoneuo <2230>” Lexicon-Concordance Online Bible. n.d. <http://lexiconcordance.com/greek/2230.html>
[14] Ramsay, William M.  “Was Christ Born in Bethlehem?”  2010. Biblehub.com. Chapter 11. <http://biblehub.com/library/ramsay/was_christ_born_in_bethlehem/index.html>
[15] Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXVII.  Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVI, Chapter XI.  Bunson, Matthew.  Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Berytus.” <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624&gt=; Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVI, Chapter IX; Book XVII Chapters, IX, X.  Josephus. Wars. Book II, Chapter II.  Bunson, Matthew.  Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Judaea.” 2002. <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624> Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVI, Chapters IX, XI; Book XVII, Chapter IX-XI; Book XX, Chapter XVIII.  Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXI; Book II, Chapter II.  Antiquities.  Josephus. Life. #11.
[16] “Syria.” Regnal Chronologies.  Doig, Schurer, Emil. A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ.1890. <http://books.google.com/books?id=BRynO3W9FPcC&pg=PP1#v=snippet&q=Tiberius&f=false>
[17] “Ancient History Sourcebook: Res Gestae Divi Augusti, c. 14 CE.” Davis, William Steams, ed. 1912. <http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/14resgestae.asp>  Ramsay.  Was Christ Born in Bethlehem?  Chapter 11. “Syria.” Regnal Chronologies. n.d. <http://web.raex.com/~obsidian/Syria.html#Syria> Schurer. A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ. Volume 1, page 351.  Martin, Ernest L. The Star of Bethlehem: The Star That Astonished the World. Chapter 10. <http://askelm.com/star/star000.htm#_edn11%3E%20%3Chttp://web.archive.org/web/20170111193244/http://www.askelm.com/star/star001.htm>
[18] Davis, J. “Quirinius.” Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church, Vol. I.  n.d.  Christian Classics Ethereal Library. “Chronology of the Life of Christ.” “The Census of Quirinius.” pp 101-104. 13 July 2005 <http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc2.i.html>  <https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc1/hcc1.i.II_1.16.html>  Ramsay.  Was Christ Born in Bethlehem? Chapter 11.
Schaff. History of the Christian Church, Volume I. “Chronology of the Life of Christ.” Chapter 2, Sec 16.  Sieffert, F. “Census.” The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. Vol. II:  Basilica – Chambers. 1952. <http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/encyc/encyc02/htm/iv.vi.ccxxx.htm>  Tacitus, Gaius Cornelius. The Annals.109 AD. Book III. Trans. Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb, <http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/annals.html>  Smith, William.  A School Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 1857. “Vice’sima.” <https://archive.org/stream/schooldictionary00smituoft#page/n9/mode/2up/search/publicani>  “Cilicia.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2018. <http://www.livius.org/cg-cm/cilicia/cilicia.html>  “Cilicia.” UNRV History |The Roman Empire. 2017. <http://www.unrv.com/provinces/cilicia.php>  “Cilicia.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2014. <http://www.livius.org/cg-cm/cilicia/cilicia.html>  Mommsen, Theodor. The Provinces of the Roman Empire from Caesar to Diocletian. Volume 1. 1887. Chapter VIII., pp 347 – 397. <http://books.google.com/books?id=_WAKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=asia%20minor&f=false>  Boak , Arthur Edward Romilly.  A History of Rome to 565 A. D. 1921. p 277. 2010. <http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32624/32624-h/32624-h.html>  Schurer. A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ. Volume 1, pp 351-354.  “Syria.” Regnal Chronologies.  “Varus, Quintilius.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14647-varus-quintilius>  Doig. New Testament Chronology. Chapter 5.  Schurer. A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ. Volume 1, pp 352-353.  “List of Roman governors of Syria.” Wikipedia.com. 2018. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_governors_of_Syria>   Gertoux. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.” p 8.  Bunson. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Consuls.”
[19] Gertoux. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.” pp 3-5. Gertoux, Gerard. “Dating the death of Herod.” 2015. p 1. <http://www.academia.edu/2518046/Dating_the_death_of_Herod>
[20] Gertoux. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.” Titulus Venetus (CIL III; ILS 2683).  Inscription. p 4.

An Unusual Roman Census Decree By Caesar Augustus

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

An Unusual Roman Census Decree By Caesar Augustus

 

Traditional Nativity stories refer to the “census” decreed by Caesar Augustus. It was the motivation for Joseph and Mary to travel in her late eighth month of pregnancy to Bethlehem 90-miles away where Gospel Nativity accounts of Matthew and Luke report she gave birth to Jesus of Nazareth.

LK 2:1-3 “Now in those days a decree went out from Caesar Augustus, that a census be taken of all the inhabited earth. This was the first census taken while Quirinius was governor of Syria. And everyone was on his way to register for the census, each to his own city.” NASB

Derived from the Latin word censēre is the English word “census.” The word “census” is not used in many Gospel English translations for good reason – nowhere in the original Greek texts is found the Latin word censēre.[1]

As a parallel comparison in the four works of Jewish historian Josephus, only one similar event is referenced. In Antiquities of the Jews, Moses “numbered” the Hebrew army, but Josephus didn’t use the word “census.”[2]

Only two possibilities for Greek equivalents are words apographo and apographe, each with very similar meanings.[3] One word is an activity and the other is a document record, yet both words have been interchangeably translated in English Bibles with five variations of “census,” “registered,” “enrolled,” “numbering,” and “taxed.”[4]

As a verb in Luke 2:1 and 3, apographo means an activity to “write off (a copy or list), i.e. enrollment,” an enrollment activity. As a noun in Luke 2:2 , apographe is “an enrollment, by implication an assessment,” an enrollment record.

Res gestae divi Augusti

Backdrop of a Roman census is the multiple facets associated with a censēre where enumeration of Roman citizens was the prized objective. Augustus took three lustrum censuses during his 44-year reign. In Caesar’s own words:

“When I was consul the fifth time (29 B.C.E.), I increased the number of patricians by order of the people and senate. I read the roll of the senate three times, and in my sixth consulate (28 B.C.E.) I made a census of the people with Marcus Agrippa as my colleague. I conducted a lustrum, after a forty-one year gap, in which lustrum were counted 4,063,000 heads of Roman citizens. Then again, with consular imperium I conducted a lustrum alone when Gaius Censorinus and Gaius Asinius were consuls (8 B.C.E.), in which lustrum were counted 4,233,000 heads of Roman citizens. And the third time, with consular imperium, I conducted a lustrum with my son Tiberius Caesar as colleague, when Sextus Pompeius and Sextus Appuleius were consuls (14 A.C.E.), in which lustrum were counted 4,937,000 of the heads of Roman citizens.” – The Deeds of Divine Augustus [5]

Roman lustrums involved a lesser known religious component. A sacred ceremony at the conclusion of a lustrum involved the Censor offering a sacrifice to the god Mars on behalf of Rome’s citizens.[6]

Taxation comes into play because data collection from a censēre was typically used as the basis to initiate a tax valuation, an assessment or appraisal. A Roman procurator was then responsible for actual tax collection activities managed through local authorities.[7]

Publicani purchased franchise rights to collect taxes through an auction held in Rome.[8] Abuses of tax collection were rife, a natural consequence of the Roman tax collection system.

A franchise inherently involves making a profit, but Rome didn’t care about how the proceeds were collected as long as the government received its expected revenue. This opened the door to dishonest and abusive behaviors to collect more revenue than was necessary by the franchise owner’s tax collection agents known as publicans, the despised tax collectors of the Gospels such as was the Disciple Matthew.[9]

Aligning with secular historical timelines appears to pose a conflict with these two Gospels. Historians, religious scholars, and detractors take varied and opposing positions; however, virtually all believe both Herod and Augustus had to be alive when Jesus was born. Further complicating the picture is the controversy surrounding the date of Herod’s death.

Luke corroborates Matthew as Herod being alive and adds two more dating parameters – the “census” and Quirinius factors.[10] According to Luke, the birth of Jesus occurred when Quirinius governed in Syria making the year 8 BC too soon under known or possible secular historical scenarios for Quirinius to be a governor.

Secular history places Herod’s death in 4 BC based on reckoning from the printings of Josephus’ Antiquities. Reckoning is based on the anchor date of the 20th year of the reign of Tiberius in-spite-of two other entries in Antiquities and Wars recording that Tiberius died in his 22nd year.[11]

Major world libraries holding handwritten manuscript copies of Antiquities predating the printings were personally investigated and reviewed by historian buff David Beyer. He discovered that all 31 copies of existing handwritten manuscripts actually say Herod’s death occurred during the 22nd year of Tiberius, not the 20th year.[12]

Not uncommon were errors in transcribing manuscript documents according to Westcott and Hort, experts in literary analysis. The 2-year difference translates into Herod’s death occurring in 2 BC or early 1 BC, not 4 BC.[13]

Dr. Earnest Martin’s research points to a special set of circumstances in 2 BC.[14] Rome was in the height of its glory commemorating the 750th anniversary of its founding and was the same year as the Silver Jubilee reign of Caesar Augustus.

Roman history records the Senate bestowed upon their emperor the honor of Pater Patriae, an honor Augustus considered to be one the highlights of his reign listed in The Deeds of Divine Augustus. Martin asserts that to underscore this honor, the Roman Senate had Augustus decree a “registration” to be taken of the entire Roman Empire claiming allegiance to him as Pater Patriae.[15]

Historian expert Gerard Gertoux conducted independent research that corroborates the findings of Beyer and Martin. Gertoux concluded that Luke’s “census of the world” occurred in 2 BC and was not for taxation purposes.

Gertoux determined that Caesar’s motivation for the “census” was to quantify the entire resources of Rome as part of his breviarium totius imperii. Eventually this was to be read at his funeral along with the unveiling of his Res gestae divi Augusti (The Deeds of Divine Augustus).[16]

Research evidence produced by Beyer, Martin and Gertoux establishes a 2 BC timeline for a special “census” registration decreed by Augustus that occurred before the death of King Herod in late 2 BC or early 1 BC. These findings are consistent with dating parameters documented in the accounts of Matthew and Luke – Herod’s reign; reign of Augustus and his census decree; governing of Quirinius in Syria plus one other dating parameter, the Star corroborated by NASA data.

Perhaps the strongest evidence of Luke’s reference of a registration decree issued by Augustus has nothing to do with history and is best presented with a question.

How likely is it that Joseph would risk taking Mary, a young almost 9-month pregnant teenage girl, away from her comfortable home and family on a difficult, treacherous week’s long journey on the back of a donkey to Bethlehem 90 miles away knowing it was quite possible that Mary could give birth in the wilderness along the way – unless the Town Crier’s announcement of Augustus’ decree gave them no other choice?[17]

 

Updated October 5, 2024.

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1] “Census.”  Merriam-Webster. 2018. <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/census
[2] Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. Book 3, Chapter 12.4. The Complete Works of Josephus. 1850. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false>
[3] Luke 2:1-4.  Net.bible.org. Greek text. “apographo <583>” and “aprographe <582>.” n.d. <http://lexiconcordance.com>  Smith, William; Wayte, William; Marindin, G.E., Ed. A Dictionary  of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 1890. “apographe.” <https://books.google.com/books?id=Cu89AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA403&lpg=PA403&dq=greek+word+for+census&source=bl&ots=LM1MjmCiJt&sig=1_yjJgyNxcCcSWZvf0QK69IJuMw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx0oPA04DYAhXo6YMKHebvAEwQ6AEIejAK#v=onepage&q=register&f=false>
[4] NASV, NRSV, ASV, BBE, KJV.  Bunson, Matthew.  Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Censor; Census.” <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624> 
[5] Augustus, Caesar.  The Deeds of the Devine Augustus (Res gestae divi Augusti). #8. Trans. Thomas Bushnell. 1998. <http://classics.mit.edu/Augustus/deeds.html>
[6] “Lustrum.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2018. <http://www.livius.org/concept/lustrum>  Bunson. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Censor, Census.”
[7] Smallwood, E. Mary.  The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian. 2nd Ed. 1981. pp 151-152. http://books.google.com/books?id=jSYbpitEjggC&lpg=PA151&ots=VWqUOinty4&dq=census%20Syria%20Rome&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false Smith, William. “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.” 1901. 3rd Ed., Vol. 1. “Censor”, “Publicani” and “Vectigalia.” <https://books.google.com/books?id=Cu89AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA403&lpg=PA403&dq=greek+word+for+census&source=bl&ots=LM1MjmCiJt&sig=1_yjJgyNxcCcSWZvf0QK69IJuMw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx0oPA04DYAhXo6YMKHebvAEwQ6AEIejAK#v=onepage&q=census&f=false “Procurator.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2018. <http://www.livius.org/concept/procurator>
[8] Smallwood.  The Jews Under Roman Rule. p 152.
[9] Matthew 9; Luke 5. Smith, W. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. “Censor.” “Publicani” and “Vectigalia.”
10] Matthew 2; Luke 1. Smallwood. The Jews Under Roman Rule. Appendix E, p 568.
[11] Josephus.  Antiquities of the Jews. Book XVIII, Chapter II. 2, VI.5.  Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXIII.8. Chapters IV.6 and V.4.  Bernegger, P.M. “Affirmation of Herod’s Death in 4 B.C.” Journal of Theological Studies Vol. 34, no 2. 1983. pp 526-531. <http://www.redatedkings.com/postings/Bernegger.pdf> Schurer, Emil. A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ. Volume 1. 1890. pp 464-465, footnote 165. <http://books.google.com/books?id=BRynO3W9FPcC&pg=PP1#v=snippet&q=Tiberius&f=false> Doig, Kenneth F.  New Testament Chronology. 1990. Chapter 4.<http://nowoezone.com/NT_Chronology.htm>  Jachowski, Raymond. Academa.Edu. “The Death of Herod the Great and the Latin Josephus: Re-Examining the Twenty-Second Year of Tiberius.” n.d. <https://www.academia.edu/19833193/The_Death_of_Herod_the_Great_and_the_Latin_Josephus_Re_Examining_the_Twenty_Second_Year_of_Tiberius> 
[12] Chase, Jeffrey S. “The Gutenberg Printing Press.” n.d. <http://www.cs.duke.edu/~chase/cps49s/press-summary.html>
[13] Beyer, David W.  “Josephus Reexamined:  Unraveling the Twenty-Second Year of Tiberius.” pp 90-93, 95-96.  <http://books.google.com/books?id=mWnYvI5RdLMC&lpg=PP1&dq=isbn%3A0865545820&pg=PA85#v=snippet&q=beyer&f=false> Wolfram, Chuck. “The Herodian Dynasty.” 2004. <http://web.archive.org/web/20151013221102/http:/freepages.history.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~cwolfram/herod> Westcott, Brooke F. & Hort, John A. The New Testament in the Original Greek – Introduction | Appendix. pp 4-7. 1907. <https://books.google.com/books?id=gZ4HAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+New+Testament+in+the+Original+Greek&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiOjMvk3fjXAhUE5yYKHSTHC5wQ6wEIOjAD#v=onepage&q=The%20New%20Testament%20in%20the%20Original%20Greek&f=false> Martin, Ernest L. The Star of Bethlehem – The Star That Astonished the World. Chapter 13. <http://askelm.com/star/star000.htm#_edn11>  Jachowski. “The Death of Herod the Great and the Latin Josephus: Re-Examining the Twenty-Second Year of Tiberius.”
[14] Gertoux, Gerard. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.”  n.d.  pp 6-7. <http://www.academia.edu/3184175/Dating_the_two_Censuses_of_Quirinius>  Stevenson, Tom R. “Acceptance of the Title Pater Patriae in 2 BC.” <https://www.academia.edu/21863060/Acceptance_of_the_Title_Pater_Patriae_in_2_BC> 
[15] Augustus. The Deeds of the Devine Augustus. #35.  “pater patriae.”  Nova Roma. 2017. <www.novaroma.org/nr/Pater_Patriae_(Nova_Roma)>  “pater patriae.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. <https://www.britannica.com/topic/pater-patriae> Martin. The Star of Bethlehem. Chapter 13.  Mosley, John. “Common Errors in ‘Star of Bethlehem’ Planetarium Shows.” Reprint from Planetarian, Third Quarter 1981. <http://www.ips-planetarium.org/?page=a_mosley1981> Gertoux. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.” p 7.
[16] Gertoux. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.”  pp 6-7.  Davis, William Steams, ed.  Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources. Vol. II: Rome and the West. 1912-13. pp. 166-172. <http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/14resgestae.asp>  Schaff, Philip. “Chronology of the Life of Christ.”  History of the Christian Church, Volume I: Apostolic Christianity. A.D. 1-100. 1890. Chapter 2, Sec 16.  <http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc1.i.II_1.16.html>
[17] “Distance between Nazareth and Bethlehem.” DistanceFromTo.net. 2018. <https://www.distancefromto.net/between/Nazareth/Bethlehem> “What is the distance between Nazareth and Bethlehem?” Reference.com. 2017. <https://www.reference.com/geography/distance-between-nazareth-bethlehem-6ac7e95c8360c7c7#> Bing.com/maps. Modern day mileage calculation from Bethlehem to Nablus (Nazareth) <https://binged.it/2mNpBy8>  Smallwood, E. Mary.  The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian. p 152. 1981.<http://books.google.com/books?id=jSYbpitEjggC&lpg=PA151&ots=VWqUOinty4&dq=census%20Syria%20Rome&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false>  Tarwacka, Anna. “The consequences of avoiding census in Roman law.” 2013. <https://www.academia.edu/5525859/The_consequences_of_avoiding_census_in_Roman_law>