Jewish Leaders – Recognition of the Messiah?

Posted on March 28, 2021March 6, 2024 by K.B. Vogelman

Jewish Leaders – Recognition of the Messiah?

Jewish leadership acknowledged the supernatural abilities and authority of Jesus of Nazareth…some even recognized him as the Messiah yet many eventually sought to kill him. It began at the time of his birth.

Magi saw signs that a special King of the Jews was to be born and began a quest traveling hundreds of miles not knowing exactly where to find him. Going to the king’s palace in Jerusalem seeking more information, King Herod gave the Magi the birth location of the Messiah as it was provided to him by the Jewish religious experts in the Law and chief priests.

Herod’s question to them had been simple – where is the Christ (Greek for Messiah) to be born? His question was based not on “if,” rather an assumption of fact asking “where” the Messiah was to be born? Their answer: “In Bethlehem of Judea.”^[1] Accordingly, based on the response from the Jewish religious experts, Herod sent the Magi to Bethlehem where they did indeed find the child, Jesus.

Eight days after Jesus was born in Bethlehem, Joseph and Mary took him to the Temple in Jerusalem a few miles away to comply with the Jewish laws to formally name him, to be circumcised, offer a sacrifice and for his father to bless him.^[2]

A man named Simeon is described in Luke as a righteous and devout man was who was seeking the “consolation of Israel.” He had previously received a vision that he would not die until he had seen the Messiah.

Simeon was inspired to go to the Temple on a particular day which happened to be the same time that Joseph and Mary took baby Jesus to the Temple. He met Joseph and Mary at the Temple, took the babe in his arms, blessed Jesus and said:

^{LK 2:30-32} “For my eyes have seen your salvation, which you have prepared in the sight of all people, a light for revelation to the Gentiles and for glory to your people Israel.” _(NIV)

Amazed by Simeon’s words, he had one more thing to tell Joseph and Mary about their child. Simeon foretold to them what to expect for the life of Jesus:

^{LK 2:34-35} “This child is destined to cause the falling and rising of many in Israel, and to be a sign that will be spoken against, so that the thoughts of many hearts will be revealed. And a sword will pierce your own soul too.” _(NIV)

Anna was a prophetess, the daughter of Phanuel of the Asher tribe. Her husband had died after only seven years of marriage leaving her a widow for the next 84 years. Living a reclusive life, she never left the Temple fasting and praying day and night.^[3]

Seeing Joseph, Mary and Jesus during their visit to the Temple, Anna came up to them and began giving thanks to God. After that time, the prophetess spoke of Jesus to all who came into the Temple interested in the “redemption of Jerusalem.”

Several groups of Jewish religious leaders are referenced in the Gospels typically in opposition to Jesus during his final three-year ministry – the rulers of the Sanhedrin, the High Priest, the Pharisees, the Herodians, the chief priests, the legal experts and the elders.

While opposing Jesus as a threat to fundamental Judaism, they acknowledged the supernatural abilities and powers of Jesus through their criticisms thereby inadvertently corroborating that he possessed the characteristics of the prophesied Messiah.^[4]

Sanhedrin was the ruling political body of the Jewish theocracy originally established by Moses.^[5] The High Priest was the head of the Sanhedrin and political leader of all the Jewish people.^[6]

Scribes were the legal experts of Jewish law, the lawyers of the day.^[7] Chief priests were religious leaders from the Temple and members of the Sanhedrin.^[8] Elders were valued in Jewish society for their wisdom in consultations.^[9] Herodians were a minor religious faction although they shared a common enemy of Jesus.^[10]

Chief priests, legal experts and elders acknowledged Jesus had the supernatural power and authority to cast out demons and to perform “signs” often translated as “miracles.”^[11] Asking Jesus to identify the authority of his power “to do these things,” they could not answer a legal riddle he posed to them and, in return, Jesus didn’t answer their question either.^[12]

Pharisees were one of three predominate religious factions in Jerusalem and most noticeable throughout Judea and were the primary nemesis of Jesus in the Gospels.^[13] Inexplicably, they viewed Jesus as being on their level calling him “teacher” who taught “the way of God in truth” and took offense when Jesus dared to eat with the “sinners.”^[14] Admitting Jesus performed “signs ” so amazing that “the whole world has gone after him,” it served as the trigger point to take action to kill him.^[15]

Arresting Jesus, the Jewish leadership put him on trial when he admitted under oath to being the “Son of God.” The High Priest in charge of the trial, Caiaphas, reacted to the admission by tearing his clothes in a customary display of grief for hearing blasphemy exclaiming, “Why do we still need witnesses?”^[16]

Not all the Jewish leadership shared the same disdainful views of Jesus. In one instance, Jesus was invited to dinner by a Pharisee named Simon.^[17] While dining, an uninvited guest – a local woman “sinner” – washed the feet of Jesus with her tears and hair. Jesus forgave her many sins causing Simon and his guests to wonder who is Jesus to be able to forgive sins?^[18]

Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea were identified as Jewish rulers who followed Jesus.^[19] Nicodemus had met secretly with Jesus and once pushed back on unfair accusations of his ruling peers.^[20] Joseph asked Pilate for the crucified body of Jesus and both Jewish rulers together buried him in Joseph’s unused tomb.^[21]

King Herod believed as a result of the Magi’s visit through the words of his royal Jewish council that the Messiah had been born in Bethlehem. At the Temple, baby Jesus was recognized twice as the Messiah. Later in life, archenemies of Jesus acknowledged his supernatural abilities to heal, perform other miracles, and his authority of power over evil.

What did some Jewish leaders see that others did not – was Jesus the prophesied Messiah?

Updated December 2, 2022.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1] Matthew 2:5.
[2] Luke 2:21-33.
[3] Luke 2:36-38.
[4] Exodus 18:25-26; Deuteronomy 1:15-17, 16:18-20; Matthew 12:9; Mark 11:18; Luke 6:6-11; John 11:46-48. Sanhedrin 49b. Soncino Babylonian Talmud. 1935-1948. <https://israelect.com/Come-and-Hear/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_49.html “Chief Priests.” Encyclopedia.com. 2019. <https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/chief-priests >
[5] “Sanhedrin.” JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2011. <https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12291-portalis-comte-joseph-marie >
[6] “High Priest.” JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2011. <https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7689-high-priest >
[7] “Scribes.” JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2011. <https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13831-sofer >
[8] “Chief Priests.” Encyclopedia.com. 2019. <https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/chief-priests >
[9]“Elder.” Jewish Virtual Library. 2021. <https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/elder >
[10] “Herodians.” JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2011. <https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7605-herodians >
[11] Mark 2:6; 3:22; Luke 6:7; John 11:47.
[13] “Pharisees.” JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2011. <https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articl s/12050-perushim >
[14] Matthew 22:16; Mark 2:13-16. Luke 5:30, 7:39, 15:2: John 8:3.
[15] Matthew 12:9, 22:15; Mark 3:1-6; Luke 5:21, 6:2, 11, 11:53; John 7:31-32, 11:47-50; 12:19.
[16] Mark 14:61-63. NET, NRSV. CR Matthew 26:63-65; Luke 22:70-71. O’Neal, Sam. Learn Religions. 2019. <https://www.learnreligions.com/why-people-in-the-bible-tore-their-clothes-363391 >
[17] Luke 7:44.
[18] Luke 7:36-35.
[19] John 3:1, 7:50-51, 19:38-39.
[20] John 7:50-51.
[21] Matthew 27:57-60; Mark 15:42-46; Luke 23:50-53; John 19:38-42.

“His Star” – What Signs Did the Magi See?

Posted on December 15, 2018January 21, 2024 by K.B. Vogelman

“His Star” – What Signs Did the Magi See?

Magi saw “His star” signaling the birth of the “King of the Jews,” according to Matthew, and wanted to worship him. Astrology, astronomy or something else?^[1]

^M^T^2:1-2“…‘Where is He who has been born King of the Jews? For we have seen His star in the East and have come to worship Him.’” _{(NASB, NKJV)}

^M^T^2:9-10“…behold, the star which they had seen in the East went before them…When they saw the star, they rejoiced with exceedingly great joy._(NKJV)

Astrology is the belief that celestial bodies influence a person’s journey in life where horoscopes define a personality, successes, sorrows, challenges – a life’s destiny.^[2]

Astronomy is a science where positions of stars and planets follow a predictive path that can be charted past, present and future – no mystical meaning in the science.^[3]

Zoroastrian theology of the Magi did not believe astrology determined a person’s future, rather a person’s spirit was chosen through a chain of decisions by the age of 15. It was a freewill choice result.^[4]

Going back millennia from the Assyrians and Babylonians down through the Greeks and Romans, planet-stars and certain fixed stars had names of gods varying by culture and language.^[5] Stargazer Magi believed every planet had a meaning.^[6]

As these symbolic celestial bodies moved through the night sky, the Magi viewed their interactions as having earthly significance.^[7] A series of signs unfolded a story where one sign was associated with the next ultimately portraying a particular outcome.^[8]

Unknown to many, Hebrew scholars have long accepted a belief that during creation God instilled the 12 constellations with influences in world events.^[9] Man abused this knowledge by worshiping the stars instead of God, thus He made it a forbidden practice.^[10]

“The study of the universe as a whole was, like all other sciences in olden times, held in closest connection with religion, and was cultivated in the interest of the latter. The starworld was to the heathen an object of worship, but not to the Jews, whether national or Hellenized. With this reverence there was connected a superstition that the stars determined the destiny of man…It is obvious, therefore, that the Astronomy of the Talmudists [Jewish biblical sages] could not be an independent science any more than that of the Babylonians, the Egyptians, the Greeks, or of all other nations of antiquity or of the medieval ages: it was a department of knowledge belonging to theology.”^[11] – Jewish Encyclopedia

Knowing how the Magi and the Hebrews viewed the constellations, the planets, their meaning and significance of their interactions serves as a key to solving the mystery of “His star.” By tying this information to the incredible factual astronomy events that played out on the night’s stage during the final years of the BC era, several theories emerge that could possibly identify “His star.”

One is the comet star theory when two comets were observed, first in 5 BC lasting for 70 days and then a second tailless comet visible during a single night on April 24, 4 BC.^[12] They are distinctly two separate events which does not align to Matthew’s account.

Another theory cites ancient Chinese records telling how a nova burst in the constellation Aquila the Eagle in 5 BC. A nova involves an explosion of a star that creates a temporary brightening of the star before it fades back to a fainter state.^[13] The nova theory has to overcome the very fact that it is a one-star, one-time event.

A popular theory is based on a series of conjunctions during the 7-6 BC timeframe involving the very close proximity of Jupiter-Saturn triple conjunctions. The trifecta took place in 7 BC inside the constellation Pisces the Fish on May 29, September 29 and December 5 that year followed by a massing of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn in 6 BC.^[14] Jupiter and Saturn also twice came into close conjunction with the Moon.^[15]

Rarity would be a factor since the Jupiter-Saturn triple conjunction was only the third since 562 BC. Problematic for this scenario is that it does not offer an explanation for a “star.” The scenario did have Babylonian astrological implications by taking place inside the constellation Pisces known to the Babylonians as Nunu.^[16]

Pisces the Fish constellation, considered to be the house of Jupiter, is associated with water and rain making the Earth fruitful.^[17] In the Hebrew Zodiac, Pisces is the twelfth sign called Dagim that falls in the twelfth Jewish month of Adar, and is one of the three constellations of the East.^[18]

Dagim represents fertility and pregnancy; a blessing. Adar is the month of joy holding the last holiday of the year, Purim, the celebration of hidden miracles and sets the stage for the month Nisan and the Passover.^[19]

One starry scenario theory in 3-2 BC has stood out to modern-day experts. Seven extraordinarily close-proximity conjunctions tell an intriguing allegorical story that cannot be easily ignored.

Hitting squarely on several points, these seven conjunctions provide an astronomy science explanation for “His star.” They match the 2 BC timeline for the Caesar Augustus Pater Patriae registration decree; possibly precedes the death of King Herod; and deftly fit with the Magi’s view of cosmic signs.

An 18-month series of rare conjunctions began in 3 BC with the .67˚ Saturn-Mercury conjunction. Saturn was known as Ninib, Babylonian god of fertility, and Mercury as Nebo, “the messenger of the gods,” the god of record-keeping and scribe who delivered messages to the mortals.^[20] In this scene, the messenger to the mortals and the scribe record-keeper god met with the fertility god.

Three weeks later came the .12˚ conjunction between Saturn and Venus who was the Babylonian’s divine personification of the goddess Ishtar, a composite goddess who had many attributes. Venus was the queen of heaven, the mother goddess, the goddess of love, marriage and childbirth.^[21] Figuratively the god of fertility had met with the goddess queen.

Two months later, queen Venus made extremely close contact with its .07˚ conjunction with Jupiter, the king planet known to the Babylonians as Marduk, the patron god of creation.^[22] The symbolic coming together of the king and queen is modestly obvious. Would the Magi have seen this as the sign of a royal conception?

Perhaps the Wise Men could have chalked this all up to coincidence…until a month later. In just a half-tick of the comic clock, they saw where king Jupiter had left his visitation with queen Venus to begin a triple conjunction with the star Regulus.

Considered to be the king of stars that ruled the affairs of the heavens, Regulus was to the Persians the leader of the Four Royal stars, the four Guardians of Heaven.^[23] As the brightest and chief star in the center of the constellation Leo the Lion, Regulus was known as the Heart of the Lion.^[24]

“Sharru” is the star’s Babylonian name was meaning the ‘breast, heart’ of the lion. In Hebrew, Sharru-ukin means “king; legitimate, true.”^[25]

Leo is considered to be a royal constellation because of its status at the head of the Zodiac calendar dominated by king star Regulus and its direct path to the sun.^[26] Well-known to the stargazers of the ancient world, Leo was called “Ser” or “Shī” by the Persians and “Arū” by the Babylonians, all meaning Lion.^[27]

Over the next eight months, Jupiter’s triple conjunction path revolved around Regulus where, in essence, the king planet circled a ring around the king star of the heavens. Taking place in the heart of Leo the Lion, the sign of Judah, this triple conjunction may have signaled the Magi where to find the newborn king of Judea.^[28]

June 17, 2 BC, Jupiter moved from circling Regulus directly back to a reunion with Venus for an overlapping occultation conjunction forming a single brilliant star. It was not a surprise to the Magi who would have anticipated its appearance.

Plausibly this Jupiter-Venus Conjunction occurred while the Magi were in Jerusalem. Whether or not it was the second appearance of “His star,” Matthew reports the Magi reacted with “exceedingly great joy” when they saw “His star” again.

Events in the night sky were extraordinary during the last 7 years of the BC era. If it was one of these scenarios or something else, the Magi obviously saw and believed in what they saw and acted on it.

Appearing unannounced at the palace of King Herod, he did not question the declaration of the Magi whose centuries old reputation renowned for their expertise in reading the stars and, according to Plato, were “king-makers.”^[29] Herod acted upon the Magi’s information as fact; consulted with Jewish religious experts on prophecy that identified Bethlehem; then focused his attention on wanting to know when “His star” had appeared.

Was the sign of “His star” announced by the Magi to King Herod in his Judean palace actually the conjunctions of Jupiter and Venus in 3 and 2 BC?

Update December 4, 2023.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1]“Babylonian Astrology.” Babylonian and Mesopotamian Astrology and Astronomy. 2018. <https://factsanddetails.com/world/cat56/sub402/entry-6063.html > Clevenger, John. “Astronomy, Astrology, and the Star of Bethlehem.” Lake County (Illinois) Astronomical Society. 2012. <http://www.lcas-astronomy.org/articles/display.php?filename=the_christmas_star&category=miscellaneous> Dark Sky. HuffPost. image. 2014. https://s-i.huffpost.com/gen/1751394/images/o-DARK-SKY-WEEK-facebook.jpg>
[2] “astrology.” Merriam-Webster. 2018. <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/astrology> “astrology.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. <https://www.britannica.com/topic/astrology>
[3] “astronomy.” Merriam-Webster. 2018. <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/astronomy> “astronomy.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. <https://www.britannica.com/science/astronomy> Redd, Nola Taylor. Space.com. 2017. <https://www.space.com/16014-astronomy.html>
[4] Eduljee, K. E. “Is Zoroastrianism a Religion, Philosophy, Way-of-Life…? The Spirit.” Zoroastrian Heritage. 2011. <http://zoroastrianheritage.blogspot.com/2011/05/is-zoroastrianism-religion-philosophy.html> Eduljee, K. E. “Introduction. Zoroastrianism & Astrology.” n.d. <http://zoroastrianastrology.blogspot.com/
[5] Eduljee, K. E. “Zoroastrian-Persian Influence on Greek Philosophy and Sciences.” Zoroastrian Heritage. 2011. <http://zoroastrianheritage.blogspot.com/2011/04/zoroastrian-influence-on-greek.html> Eduljee, K. E. “Astrology & Zoroastrianism,” Zoroastrian Heritage. 2011. <http://zoroastrianheritage.blogspot.com/2011/04/astrology-zoroastrianism.html> Hochhalter, Howard. The Hollow 4 Kids. “A Celestial Road to Truth.” 2022. <https://thehollow4kids.com/a-celestial-road-to-truth/?fbclid=IwAR26hEnI1VfkjcBSRDJp2iyPIaNwPwrDZ0oHYg-pt9V0lumQTxX9WfXk4D0>
[6] “Every Planet Has a Meaning.” Magi Society. Lesson 3. 2008. <http://www.magiastrology.com/lesson1.html>
[7] Eduljee, K. E. “Greek Perceptions of Zoroaster, Zoroastrianism & the Magi.” #2, #33. Zoroastrian Heritage. 2011. <http://zoroastrianheritage.blogspot.com/2011/04/greek-perceptions-of-zoroaster.html> “Magi Astronomy.” Magi Society. 2008. <http://www.magiastrology.com/lesson3.html> Humphreys, Colin J. “The Star of Bethlehem – a Comet in 5 BC – And the Date and Birth of Christ.” pp 390-391. SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS). 1991. <http://adsbit.harvard.edu//full/1991QJRAS..32..389H/0000391.000.html>
[8] Dickinson, David. “Is This Month’s Jupiter-Venus Pair Really a Star of Bethlehem Stand In?” Universe Today. October 14, 2015. <https://www.universetoday.com/122738/is-this-months-jupiter-venus-pair-really-a-star-of-bethlehem-stand-in/> Roberts, Courtney. The Star of the Magi: The Mystery That Heralded the Coming of Christ. pp. 70-71. <https://books.google.com/books?id=480FI6lj3UkC&pg=PA145&lpg=PA145&dq=magi+signs+in+the+sky&source=bl&ots=wQlvIonSLe&sig=yX-toR4CMY1JnebNxQjvYVpHHnc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj9vsaQlonfAhUInKwKHYG5D144FBDoATABegQICBAB#v=onepage&q=magi&f=false> Hochhalter. “A Celestial Road to Truth.” Hochhalter, Howard. “The Star of Kings and the Magi.” March 21, 2023. video. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KGTmwuqznec>
[9] “Astrology.” Jewish Virtual Library. 2008. <https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/astrology> Jacobs, Lewis. “Jewish Astrology.” My Jewish Learning. 2018. <https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-astrology/> “Jewish Calendar: Months of the Jewish Year.” Bukharian Jews USA. 2010. Matrix: “Hebrew Months and the Zodiac.” <http://www.bjewsusa.com/jewish_calendar_03.htm> Borschel-Dan, Amanda. “As planets align, some see return of Jesus’ Star of Bethlehem.” Times of Israel. 26 October 2015. < https://www.timesofisrael.com/as-planets-align-some-see-return-of-jesus-star-of-bethlehem/>
[10] Deuteronomy 4:19. “Astronomy.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2052-astronomy> “star-worship.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13990-star-worship> Krane, Lloyd. “Adar and the signs of the Zodiac.” Jewish Magazine. 2008. <http://www.jewishmag.com/121mag/adar-mazel-sign/adar-mazel-sign.htm>
[11] Bold text and brackets added by author. “astronomy.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011.
[12] Everitt, Henry. “The Star of Bethlehem – A Chronology of the Life of Jesus.” Duke University|Department of Physics. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 32, p. 389 (1991). <http://www.phy.duke.edu/~everitt/StarofBethlehem.pdf> Strobel, Nick. “The Star of Bethlehem – An Astronomical Perspective.” Astronomy Notes. 2011. <http://www.astronomynotes.com/history/bethlehem-star.html> “Star of Bethlehem may have been planets Jupiter and Venus.”. IU News Room. Dec. 2003. <http://newsinfo.iu.edu/news/page/normal/1203.html&t=Star%20of%20Bethlehem%20may%20have%20been%20planets%20Jupiter%20and%20Venus> Mosley, John. “Common Errors in ‘Star of Bethlehem’ Planetarium Shows.” International Planetarium Society Inc. Reprinted from the Planetarian. 1981. <http://www.ips-planetarium.org/?page=a_mosley1981> Humphreys, Colin J. “The Star of Bethlehem – a Comet in 5 BC – And the Date and Birth of Christ.” pp 390-391.
[13] “Star of Bethlehem may have been planets Jupiter and Venus.” IU News Room.
[14] “Star of Bethlehem may have been planets Jupiter and Venus.” IU News Room. Mosley. “Common Errors in ‘Star of Bethlehem’ Planetarium Shows.” Clevenger, John. “Astronomy, Astrology, and the Star of Bethlehem.” Greetham, Phil. The Nativity Pages. 2005. Index. <https://web.archive.org/web/20121011231348/http://www.btinternet.com/~prgreetham/Wisemen/theory.html> “Astronomy, Astrology, and the Star of Bethlehem.” Flescher, Eric and Sessions, Larry. “Ten ‘Star’ of Bethlehem Myths: Part II.” Space.com. 2001. <http://web.archive.org/web/20041205014757/http://space.com:80/SpaceReportersNetworkAstronomyDiscoveries/flescher_Xmasstar2_122601.html> Hochhalter. “A Celestial Road to Truth.” Hochhalter, Howard. The Hollow 4 Kids. “Star of Bethlehem Timeline.” 2022. <https://time.graphics/line/04b2774f964bedcd8a185a5860b2767d>
[15] Molnar, Michael R. “Revealing the Star of Bethlehem.” 2015. <https://web.archive.org/web/20160624012358/http://www.eclipse.net/~molnar/> Clevenger. “Astronomy, Astrology, and the Star of Bethlehem.” Pratt, John P. “The Star of Bethlehem’s Forerunner.” JohnPratt.com. Reprinted from Meridian Magazine. 2000. <http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/lds/meridian/2000/xmas_star.html> Fazekas, Andrew. “Christmas Star Mystery Continues.” National Geographic Daily News. 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20170808084630/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/12/081224-star-bethlehem.html>
[16] Kidger, Mark R. The Star of Bethlehem: an Astronomer’s View. 1999. pp 254-256. <http://books.google.com/books?id=_ISv1gPQJV4C&lpg=PA25&ots=WsfPW9KFFR&dq=anatole%2C%20greek%2C%20magi&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=anatole,20greek,%20magi&f=false> MacKenzie, Donald A. Myths of Babylonia and Assyria. 1915. Chapter XIII. <http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/mba/mba19.htm> “Marduk.” New World Encyclopedia. 2014. <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Marduk> “Marduk.” The 1911 Classic Encyclopedia. <https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Marduk> Leverington, David A. Babylon to Voyager and Beyond – A History of Planetary Astronomy. Chapter 1.2. 2003. <http://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/08408/sample/9780521808408ws.pdf> “Ancient Assyrian/Babylonian Cuneiform.” Virtualsecrets.com. n.d. <http://www.virtualsecrets.com/assyrian.html> Allen, Richard Hinckley. Star Names and Their Meanings. pp 337, 341. 1899. <http://books.google.com/books?id=5xQuAAAAIAAJ&dq=Hinckley%2C%20Star%20Names%20and%20Their%20Meanings&pg=PP2#v=onepage&q=Hinckley,%20Star%20Names%20and%20Their%20Meanings&f=false> Rosenberg. The “Star of the Messiah” Reconsidered. pp 105-106. Nolle, Richard. “The Jupiter-Saturn Conjunction.” Astropro.com. 1998. <http://www.astropro.com/features/tables/geo/ju-sa/ju000sa.html>
[17] Rosenberg. The “Star of the Messiah” Reconsidered. p 106.
[18] “The Month of Adar.” Bukharian Jews USA. 2010. <http://www.bjewsusa.com/jewish_calendar_03_12.htm> Ullman, Yirmiyahu. “The Zodiac.” Ohr Somayach Tanenbaum College. 26 Nov. 2005. <http://ohr.edu/yhiy/article.php/2394> “Adar.” International Center for Tzfat Kabbalah. Tzfat-Kabbalah.org. n.d. <http://www.tzfat-kabbalah.org/whatis.asp?p=510> “Pisces.” Dictionary.com. 2018. <https://www.dictionary.com/browse/pisces> Ford, Dominic. “The Constellation Pisces.” In-The-Sky.org. 2018. <https://in-the-sky.org/data/constellation.php?id=67> “astronomy.” Jewish Encyclopedia.
[19] “Jewish Calendar: Months of the Jewish Year.” Bukharian Jews USA. Dovid, Avrohom. “Almanac of Important Jewish and Biblical Dates.” ThirdTemple.com. “Adar.’” n.d. <http://www.thirdtemple.com/JewishTime/adar.html> Heller, Rebbetzin Tzipporah. “The Choice of Adar.” n.d. <http://www.aish.com/h/pur/b/The_Choice_of_Adar.html> “Adar.” International Center for Tzfat Kabbalah. “Purim.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12448-purim>
[20] “Mesopotamia.” Messenger|MEcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging. 2014. http://archive.is/kBVO> Cain, Fraser. “How Did Mercury Get Its Name ?” Universe Today. 2010. <http://www.universetoday.com/66432/how-did-mercury-get-its-name> Leverington. Babylon to Voyager and Beyond – A History of Planetary Astronomy. Chapter 1.2. “Ancient Assyrian/Babylonian Cuneiform.” Virtualsecrets.com. “Babylonian Astrology.” Babylonian and Mesopotamian Astrology and Astronomy. 2018. <https://factsanddetails.com/world/cat56/sub402/entry-6063.html>
[21] MacKenzie. Myths of Babylonia and Assyria. Allen. Star Names and Their Meanings. p 274. “Venus.” Myth Encyclopedia. Myths and Legends of the World. 2014. <http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/Tr-Wa/Venus.html> Leverington. “Babylon to Voyager and Beyond – A History of Planetary Astronomy. Chapter 1.2. McCormack. “Ancient Assyrian/Babylonian Cuneiform.”
[22] MacKenzie, Myths of Babylonia and Assyria. Chapter XIII.   “Marduk.” New World Encyclopedia. “Marduk.” The 1911 Classic Encyclopedia. Leverington. Babylon to Voyager and Beyond – A History of Planetary Astronomy. Chapter 1.2.   McCormack. “Ancient Assyrian/Babylonian Cuneiform.” “Jupiter.” WyzAnt.com. 2014. <http://www.wyzant.com/resources/lessons/english/etymology/planets/jupiter> Bunson, Matthew. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Jupiter.” 2002. <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624>
[23] Allen. Star Names and Their Meanings. pp 255-257.   Olcott, William Tyler. Star Lore of All Ages. 1911. Reprinted 2017. pp 233-238. Google Books. <http://books.google.com/books?id=PN7JxXoB1c8C&lpg=PP1&ots=SRZwDRc6dW&dq=Star%20Lore%20of%20All%20Ages&pg=PA233#v=onepage&q=&f=false> Kaulins, Andis. “MUL.APIN – Sumerian Akkadian Astronomy.” LexiLine: History of Civilization. Section #13. 2013. <http://www.lexiline.com/lexiline/lexi182.htm>
[24] Allen. Star Names and Their Meanings. pp 256-257.
[25] Allen. Star Names and Their Meanings. pp 255. Olcott. Star Lore of All Ages. p 237.
“Regulus.” Constellation Guide. 2015. <https://www.constellation-guide.com/regulus/> “Sargon.” Behind the Name. 2018. <https://www.behindthename.com/name/sargon>
[26] Martin. The Star of Bethlehem. Chapter 1. Pratt, John P. “Coordinates for the Constellations.” JohnPratt.com. 2001. <http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/sidereal/sidereal.html> Martin. The Star of Bethlehem. Chapter 1. Olson, Ross.“Summary of Conjunctions of Planets (“wandering stars”).” 1997. Twin Cities Creation Science Association. n.d. < http://www.tccsa.tc/articles/star_dates.html> Olcott. Star Lore of All Ages. pp 236-237.
[27] Allen. Star Names and Their Meanings. p253.
[28] Genesis 49:8-10; Numbers 23:3-9, 21-24. Strobel. “The Star of Bethlehem – An Astronomical Perspective.” Carroll. “The Star of Bethlehem: An Astronomical and Historical Perspective.”
[29] Plato. Republic. Book 9, Section 572e. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0168:book=9:section=572e&highlight=magi>

Star of Bethlehem & Astronomy – Truly a Star?

Posted on November 25, 2018January 21, 2024 by K.B. Vogelman

Star of Bethlehem & Astronomy – Truly a Star?

Many have wondered if the Star of Bethlehem, “his star” observed by the Magi, was truly a star or something else? If astronomy can corroborate Matthew’s Gospel, it could also establish the birthday timeline for Jesus of Nazareth.

Only Matthew’s Nativity account of Jesus’ birth references the star, yet it holds two compelling clues that can be compared with factual astronomy data produced by NASA astronomers, professors, experts and others. According to Matthew, the Magi saw “his star” twice; first in their homeland, then again in Jerusalem – how can a star appear, disappear and reappear again months later?

^MT2:1-2 “…‘Where is He who has been born King of the Jews? For we have seen His star in the East and have come to worship Him.’” _{(NASB, NKJV)}

^{MT 2:9-10}“When they heard the king, they departed; and behold, the star which they had seen in the East went before them…When they saw the star, they rejoiced with exceedingly great joy._(NKJV)

Astronomy as a science began thousands of years ago with the Assyrians and Chaldeans who charted star and planetary positions and developed the ability to calculate their advance movement in the night skies. Magi were expert astronomers who used this same knowledge and skills. Today’s modern science community considers this ancient expertise to be remarkable.^[1]

After thousands of years, major advancements in scientific astronomy began in the 1600s with Johannes Kepler’s formulation of the Three Laws of Planetary Motion.^[2] In the 1960s, Bryant Tuckerman took Kepler’s breakthrough to the next level using the then highly advanced IBM 704 vacuum-tube computer to calculate the alignment of planetary stars going back millennia. Using modern software, stellar events can even be narrowed down to specific to global regions such as the Babylonian/Baghdad time zone.^[3]

A simple fact known to the Magi astronomers: fixed stars hold their positions while planet-stars normally appear and disappear during their rotation around the Sun. Movement cannot be visually seen at any given moment; rather, changes in position can be observed in periodic views of the night sky or from night to night.

Eventually a moving planet will briefly appear on a single night in close visual proximity with another planet or fixed star known as a conjunction. A separation of less than 1° proximity is considered a rare conjunction event.^[4]

Putting the degree proximity into perspective, the pinkie fingernail on a fully extended arm held towards the night sky covers about 1° (1 degree). The moon covers about ½ of a degree.^[5]

A single conjunction today is newsworthy such as when UniverseToday.com touted a 3° separation between Venus and Jupiter in 2012.^[6] It was a close 3° – chances of witnessing a conjunction of merely 1° proximity can be a once in a lifetime opportunity.

Imagine the excitement if there were seven conjunctions of less than 1° separation in just 18 months? It happened.^[7]

Extraordinary planetary conjunctions were exceptionally prolific during the final seven years of the BC era. Among them, from May, 3 BC – June, 2 BC, were seven sensational, rare conjunctions:

3 BC: ^[8]

May 19: Saturn-Mercury conjunction of only .67°/40′ (arc minutes)^†

June 12: Saturn-Venus conjunction of only .12°/7.2′

August 12: Jupiter-Venus conjunction of only .07°/4.2′

September 14: 1^st of Jupiter triple conjunction with Regulus of only .33°/19.8′

2 BC:

February 17: 2^nd of Jupiter triple conjunction with Regulus of only .85°/51′

May 8: 3^rd of Jupiter triple conjunction with Regulus of only .72°/43.2′

June 17: Jupiter-Venus conjunction of a mere .0073°/ 26.2″(arc seconds)

May 19, 3 BC, the Saturn-Mercury conjunction of .67° proximity, only 2% this close are visible from Earth.^[9] A person living to the age of 77 has less than a 50-50 chance to possibly witness one.

June 12, 3 BC, Saturn came into .12° conjunction with Venus. While these conjunctions happen about once per year, close encounters like this occur in about 8% of all their conjunctions with just 17% being visible from earth – a once in a century opportunity.^[10]

August 12, 3 BC, amazed stargazers with the Jupiter .07° conjunction with Venus.^[11] Separation with this extraordinarily tight proximity occurs in a scant 3% of their conjunctions, about once every 120 years.^[12]

September 14^th ended the 3 BC conjunction activity by initiating the first of a triple conjunction between the king planet Jupiter and the king star Regulus, each with less than 1° proximity.^[13] Jupiter-Regulus triple conjunctions recur in 12 and 71-year cycles.^[14]

Most striking of this Jupiter-Regulus triple conjunction is the timing and galactic visual location. It played out during the months between the two Jupiter-Venus conjunctions of August 12^th and the upcoming June 17^th conjunction. Last two of the triple conjunctions took place in the heart of Leo the Lion royal constellation.^[15]

June 17, 2 BC, as the sunlight faded away in the early evening western sky of Jerusalem, emerged the amazing sight. A reunion of Jupiter and Venus formed an occultation conjunction displaying an elongated, brilliant star more than twice the size of any other in the heavenly panorama.^[16] Amplified by being the two brightest planet-stars, “the star” would have been an impressive phenomenon to behold.

“Occultation” is an astronomy term referring to when one celestial object visually appears to move in front of another. Jupiter-Venus occultations are among the rarest – only 3 might have been visible to the naked eye from Jerusalem since 2 BC.^[17]

Rarer still, the Jupiter-Venus occultation occurred inside the Zodiac’s royal constellation of Leo the Lion, the natal sign of Judah.^[18] An occultation this close inside Leo only happens once about every 2000 years.

Modern software makes it possible to actually see the remarkably rare series of 3-2 BC conjunctions in an animated, time-lapsed recreation. The amazing heavenly pageant wows crowds and astronomers alike at planetarium observatory Christmas shows.^[19]

Magi expert astronomers undoubtedly saw a celestial phenomena compelling a quest traveling hundreds of miles.^[20]Advance knowledge of this upcoming event in the heavens may have been a sign that prompted the Magi to consult King Herod in Jerusalem immediately before the brilliant marvel arose.^[21]

The question is simple: is “his Star” witnessed by the Magi in Matthew the two Jupiter-Venus conjunctions on August 12, 3 BC, and June 17, 2 BC?

† Degrees ( ° ), arc minute ( ′ ), arc second ( ″ )

Updated October 10, 2023.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1] Eduljee, K. E. “Greek Perceptions of Zoroaster, Zoroastrianism & the Magi.” Zoroastrian Heritage. 2011. <http://zoroastrianheritage.blogspot.com/2011/04/greek-perceptions-of-zoroaster.html> Larson, Frederick A. The Star of Bethlehem. “Why are we hearing this now?” 2018. <http://www.bethlehemstar.net/setting-the-stage/why-are-we-hearing-this-now> Hochhalter, Howward. The Hollow 4 Kids. “A Celestial Road to Truth.” 2022. <https://thehollow4kids.com/a-celestial-road-to-truth/?fbclid=IwAR26hEnI1VfkjcBSRDJp2iyPIaNwPwrDZ0oHYg-pt9V0lumQTxX9WfXk4D0>
[2] “Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. <https://www.britannica.com/science/Keplers-laws-of-planetary-motion> Paradis, Andrew. “What are Kepler’s laws of motion and what exactly do they mean?” PhysLink.com | Physics & Astronomy Online. n.d. <http://www.physlink.com/Education/AskExperts/ae613.cfm> Nave, Carl R. “Kepler’s Laws.” Georgia State University | Department of Physics and Astronomy. 2001. <http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kepler.html>
[3] Hayton, Daron. “A Modern Astrologer’s Intellectual Breadcrumbs.” Philadelphia Area Center for History of Science. 2011. <https://web.archive.org/web/20161118000249/http://www.pachs.net/blogs/comments/a_modern_astrologers_intellectual_breadcrumbs/> Tuckerman, Bryant. “Planetary, Lunar and Solar Positions 601 B.C. to A.D. 1 at Five-Day and Ten-Day Intervals.” 1962. <http://www.caeno.org/_Feat/pdf/F027_Reliability_TuckTables.pdf> Houlden, Michael A. and Stephenson, F. Richard. “A Supplement to the Tuckerman Tables.” Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. Volume 70. “Introduction” “Extent and Precision of Tuckerman’s Tables.” <http://www.caeno.org/_Feat/pdf/F027_Reliability_TuckSupp.pdf> Leverington, David A. Babylon to Voyager and Beyond – A History of Planetary Astronomy. 2003. Chapter 1.2. <http://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/08408/sample/9780521808408ws.pdf>
[4] Basics of Space Flight. Dir. Charles Elachi. 2013 Edition. “The Solar System.” NASA Science | Solar System Exploration. <https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/basics/bsf1-2.php> “What’s a conjunction?” EarthSky. 2017. <https://earthsky.org/astronomy-essentials/what-is-a-conjunction> Coffey, Jerry. “Conjunction.” Universe Today. 7 Jan. 2010. <http://www.universetoday.com/49578/conjunction> Mosley, John. “Common Errors in ‘Star of Bethlehem’ Planetarium Shows.” International Planetarium Society Inc. Reprinted from the Planetarian. 1981. <http://www.ips-planetarium.org/?page=a_mosley1981>
[5] “Angular Measurements.” Cool Cosmos. “Cosmic Reference Guide.” Cool Cosmos. Ventrudo, Brian. “Measuring The Sky.” One-Minute Astronomer. 2009. <http://www.oneminuteastronomer.com/860/measuring-sky>
[6] Cain, Fraser. “Venus-Jupiter Conjunction, March 15th, 2012.” Universe Today. <http://www.universetoday.com/94113/venus-jupiter-conjunction-march-15th-2012 >
[7] Carroll, Susan S. “The Star of Bethlehem: An Astronomical and Historical Perspective.” Twin Cities Creation Science Association. 1997. <http://www.tccsa.tc/articles/star_susan_carroll.pdf> Hochhalter, Howard. The Hollow 4 Kids. “A Celestial Road to Truth.” 2022. <https://thehollow4kids.com/a-celestial-road-to-truth/?fbclid=IwAR26hEnI1VfkjcBSRDJp2iyPIaNwPwrDZ0oHYg-pt9V0lumQTxX9WfXk4D0> Hochhalter, Howard. The Hollow 4 Kids. “Star of Bethlehem Timeline.” 2022. <https://time.graphics/line/04b2774f964bedcd8a185a5860b2767d> Hochhalter, Howard. “The Star of Kings and the Magi.” March 21, 2023. video. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KGTmwuqznec>
[8] “Angle converter.” Unit Juggler. <https://www.unitjuggler.com/angle-conversion.html> “Angular Measurements.” Cool Cosmos. <http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/cosmic_classroom/cosmic_reference/angular.html> Ventrudo, Brian. “Measuring The Sky.” “Venus and Jupiter’s Upcoming Conjunction.” Universe Today. 2004. <http://www.universetoday.com/10006/venus-and-jupiters-upcoming-conjunction/#ixzz2B6cvKJEt> Carroll. “The Star of Bethlehem: An Astronomical and Historical Perspective.” Phillips, Tony. “A Christmas Star for SOHO.” NASA Science | Science New. 2018. <http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2000/ast16may_1> “Birth of Jesus.” Navsoft.com. 2012. <http://navsoft.com/html/birth_of_jesus.html> Martin, Ernest L. The Star of Bethlehem – The Star That Astonished the World. Chapter 1 & 4. 2003. <http://askelm.com/star/star000.htm#_edn11%3E%20%3Chttp://web.archive.org/web/20170111193244/http://www.askelm.com/star/star001.htm> Rao, Joe. “How to Measure Distances in the Night Sky.” Space.com. 2010. <http://www.space.com/8319-measure-distances-night-sky.html> Cain. “Venus and Jupiter’s Upcoming Conjunction.” Sielaff, David. “An Important August 2 B.C.E. Conjunction.” A.S.K. (Associates For Scriptural Knowledge). 2005. <http://www.askelm.com/news/n051211.htm> Clevenger, John. “Astronomy, Astrology, and the Star of Bethlehem.” Lake County (Illinois) Astronomical Society. 2012. <http://www.lcas-astronomy.org/articles/display.php?filename=the_christmas_star&category=miscellaneous> Haley, A. S. “The Star of Bethlehem and the Nativity.” Anglican Curmudgeon. 2009. <http://accurmudgeon.blogspot.com/2009/10/star-of-bethlehem-and-nativity.html> Newman, Robert C. “The Star of Bethlehem: A Natural-Supernatural Hybrid?” Interdisciplinary Bible Research Institute. IBRI Paper (2001). <http://web.archive.org/web/20171016111146/http://www.newmanlib.ibri.org/Papers/StarofBethlehem/75starbethlehem.htm> Beatty, Kelly. “Venus and Jupiter: Together at Last.” Sky & Telescope. 2015. <http://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-news/observing-news/venus-and-jupiter-a-dazzling-duo-062520154> Ratnikas, Algis. “Timeline 499BCE – 1BCE.” Timeslines of History. n.d. <http://timelines.ws/0D499_1BC.HTML> Pratt, John P. “The Star of Bethlehem’s Forerunner.” JohnPratt.com. Reprinted from Meridian Magazine. 2000. <http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/lds/meridian/2000/xmas_star.html> Rjvanderbei. “Searching for the Star of Bethlehem (updated).” National Geographic News Watch . 26 Dec. 2011 <http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2011/12/26/searching-for-the-star-of-bethlehem> Dickinson, David. “Is This Month’s Jupiter-Venus Pair Really a Star of Bethlehem Stand In?” Universe Today. October 14, 2015. <https://www.universetoday.com/122738/is-this-months-jupiter-venus-pair-really-a-star-of-bethlehem-stand-in/> Hochhalter, Howward. The Hollow 4 Kids. “Star of Bethlehem Timeline.” 2022. <https://time.graphics/line/04b2774f964bedcd8a185a5860b2767d>
[9] Curtis, Jan. “Predictable Astronomical Events.” Alaska Climate Research Center. n.d. Chapter 2. <http://climate.gi.alaska.edu/Curtis/astro.html> Curtis, Jan. “Mercury-Saturn Conjunctions (2000-2078 AD).” Alaska Climate Research Center. n.d. <http://climate.gi.alaska.edu/Curtis/graf/MeSc100.gif> “Planetary Conjunctions.” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Earth System Research Laboratory. <http://web.archive.org/web/20160304124051/http://laps.noaa.gov/albers/ast/conjun/conjun.html>
[10] “Planetary Conjunctions.” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Curtis. “Mercury-Saturn Conjunctions (2000-2078 AD).” Curtis, Jan. “Venus-Saturn Conjunctions Minimum Separation 500-Events (2000-2482).” Alaska Climate Research Center. n.d. <http://climate.gi.alaska.edu/Curtis/graf/VSc500.gif>
[11] Rao, Joe. “Saturday’s Venus-Jupiter Encounter May Explain Bible’s Star of Bethlehem.” Space.com. 2016. <http://www.space.com/33866-venus-jupiter-conjunction-star-of-bethlehem.html> Martin. The Star of Bethlehem. Chapter 4. Olson, Ross. “Summary of Conjunctions of Planets (“wandering stars”).” 1997. Twin Cities Creation Science Association. n.d. <http://www.tccsa.tc/articles/star_dates.html> “Star of Bethlehem will be seen for the first time in 800 years.” San Miguel Times. photo. https://sanmigueltimes.com/2020/12/star-of-bethlehem-will-be-seen-for-the-first-time-in-800-years>
[12] Fazekas, Andrew. “Jupiter Conjunction Peaks Thursday—Easy-to-See Sky Show.” National Geographic Daily News. 2012. <http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/03/120313-conjunction-venus-jupiter-sky-space-science> “Venus And Jupiter Will Pass 42 Arc seconds Apart On May 17.” Press Release – Marshall Space Flight Center. SpaceRef.com. 2000. <http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=1819> Curtis, Jan. “Venus-Jupiter Conjunctions Minimum Separation 500-Events (2000-2488 A.D.)” Alaska Climate Research Center. n.d. <http://web.archive.org/web/20190811095220/http://climate.gi.alaska.edu/Curtis/graf/VJc500.gif> Curtis, Jan. “Venus-Jupiter Conjunctions 100-Events.” Alaska Climate Research Center. n.d. <http://climate.gi.alaska.edu/Curtis/graf/VJc100.gif> Rao, Joe. “Earthlings Dazzled by Venus-Jupiter Close Encounter.” Discovery News. 2012. <http://news.discovery.com/space/venus-jupiter-conjunction-120312.html> Cain. “Venus and Jupiter’s Upcoming Conjunction.”
[13] Kidger, Mark R. “Possible Explanations of the Star of Bethlehem.” Mark Kidger`s Comet and Asteroid Observing Home Page n.d.<http://www.observadores-cometas.com/Star_of_Bethlehem/English/Possible.htm> Kidger, Mark R. The Star of Bethlehem: an Astronomer’s View. 1999. <http://books.google.com/books?id=_ISv1gPQJV4C&lpg=PA25&ots=WsfPW9KFFR&dq=anatole%2C%20greek%2C%20magi&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=anatole,20greek,%20magi&f=false> “2-planet (1974-2068)” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). n.d. <http://web.archive.org/web/20160412052726/http://laps.noaa.gov/albers/conjun/for008.future> Bunson, Matthew. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Jupiter.” 2002. <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624>
[14] Haley. “The Star of Bethlehem and the Nativity.” Konnen, G.P. and Meeus, J. “Triple Conjunctions, Twins and Triplets,” Journal of the British Astronomical Association. vol.93, no.1, p.20-24. Bibliographic Code 1982JBAA…93…20K. Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. n.d. <http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1982JBAA…93…20K/0000023.000.html>
[15] “Birth of Jesus.” Navsoft.com. Carroll. “The Star of Bethlehem: An Astronomical and Historical Perspective.” Newman. “The Star of Bethlehem: A Natural-Supernatural Hybrid?” Phillips. “A Christmas Star for SOHO.” Haley. “The Star of Bethlehem and the Nativity.”
[16] “Planetary Conjunctions.” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA. Bogan, Larry. “Mutual Planetary Occultations Past and Future.” Larry Bogan’s Website. Cambridge Station, Nova Scotia. 1999. <http://www.bogan.ca/astro/occultations/occltlst.htm> “Haley. “The Star of Bethlehem and the Nativity.” Carroll. “The Star of Bethlehem: An Astronomical and Historical Perspective.” p 10. “Venus And Jupiter Will Pass 42 Arc seconds Apart On May 17.” SpaceRef.com. Martin. The Star of Bethlehem. Chapter 1. Phillips. “A Christmas Star for SOHO.” Rjvanderbei. “Searching for the Star of Bethlehem (updated).” “Star of Bethlehem: Two points of view.” KTBS3abc.” photo. 2017. https://www.ktbs.com/news/arklatex-indepth/the-star-of-bethlehem-two-points-of-view/article_6b8b84c6-e5a3-11e7-806a-9fdf6d02fb5a.html>
[17] “occultation.” NASA Aerospace Science & Technology Dictionary. <https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/hqlibrary/aerospacedictionary/508/o.html> Ricci, Pierpaolo. “Occultations Between Planets from the Year 0 To 4000.” The Sky and Its Phenomena. n.d. <http://www.pierpaoloricci.it/dati/occpia_eng.htm> Bogan, Larry. “Mutual Planetary Occultations Past and Future.”
[18] Genesis 49:8-10; Numbers 23:3-9, 21-24. “Birth of Jesus.” Navsoft.com. Carroll. “The Star of Bethlehem: An Astronomical and Historical Perspective.” Newman. “The Star of Bethlehem: A Natural-Supernatural Hybrid?” Phillips. “A Christmas Star for SOHO.” Haley. “The Star of Bethlehem and the Nativity.”
[19] Fazekas, Andrew. “Christmas Star Mystery Continues.” National Geographic Daily News. 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20170808084630/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/12/081224-star-bethlehem.html> Martin. The Star of Bethlehem. Chapter 1. Haley, A. S. “The Star of Bethlehem and the Nativity.” Larson. The Star of Bethlehem. Hochhalter. “Star of Bethlehem Timeline.”
[20] Carroll. “The Star of Bethlehem: An Astronomical and Historical Perspective.” Hochhalter. The Hollow 4 Kids. “A Celestial Road to Truth.” 2022. <https://thehollow4kids.com/a-celestial-road-to-truth/?fbclid=IwAR26hEnI1VfkjcBSRDJp2iyPIaNwPwrDZ0oHYg-pt9V0lumQTxX9WfXk4D0>
[21] “Birth of Jesus.” Navsoft.com. “Historical Events.” Navsoft.com. <http://navsoft.com/html/historical.html> Newman. “The Star of Bethlehem: A Natural-Supernatural Hybrid?” Phillips. “A Christmas Star for SOHO.” Mosley, John. “Common Errors in ‘Star of Bethlehem’ Planetarium Shows.” Beatty, Kelly. “Venus and Jupiter: Together at Last.” Sky & Telescope.