Tag: virgin birth in the old testament

Rarest, Significant Hebrew Words – Virtually Hidden

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

Rarest, Significant Hebrew Words – Virtually Hidden 

 

Two virtually hidden Hebrew words appear only three times in the Hebrew text of the Tanakh, the Old Testament. Quit possibly they are the most significant words in the Bible.

Written as Hmleh, hmle and hā-‘al-māh, the Hebrew text is comprised of two words, ha and `almah.[1] Only two English Bible versions translate from Hebrew all three instances of ha-almah as “the virgin” – the Orthodox Jewish Bible and Young’s Literal Translation.[2]

Represented by the single English consonant letter h or words Hey or ha translated as “the,” it is a definite article used to make a clear and specific reference.[3] Hebrew has a special difference where, by definition, it is much more dramatic.[4] Hebrew language expert Jeff A. Benner describes the original pictograph character in this way:[5]

“The Hey has a “h” sound and is a picture of a man with his arms raised up, shouting and pointing at a great site as if to say “behold, look at that”.  This letter means “the” in the sense of pointing to something of importance.”[6]

Translation of `almah is one of the most controversial in the Jewish and Christian Bibles. One side claims `almah means “young woman” which may or may not include a state of virginity.[7] On the opposite side, the assertion is that `almah specifically means “virgin” as seen in some Christian Bible translations.[8]

Strong’s Concordance of Hebrew defines `almah is “a lass (as in veiled or private): – damsel, maid, virgin.”[9] In that era, a “maid” or “damsel” was typically presumed to be a virgin by implication of her young age and single marital status whereas the word “virgin” is explicitly self-explanatory.[10]

Exacerbating the controversy, the words “young woman” are not part of the formal Strong’s definition. Key to unraveling the differences is through textual analysis to determine how the word is intended to be understood by its authors.

Lowest common denominator is the word is na`arah meaning “girl” or “young woman” where there is no specific implication of virginity. Isaiah never once used this word.

Hebrew text is the word bethulah (bə-ṯū-lāh, bthuwlah, b@thuwlah or hlwtb), a single word for “virgin.”[11] Only when the word is used in combination with na ‘arah, a girl, is the word used to describe the virginity of an actual female subject; otherwise, the word is used unaccompanied in the contexts of metaphors in judgements of peoples or nations; lamentations or blessings; or legalistic references.

Focusing only on Biblical references where bethulah involves an actual female subject, three usage rules emerge. Bethulah is never used as the subject who initiates a present or future action such as a prophecy. For example, there are no instances that say something like “bethulah shall call;” “bethulah plays;” “bethulah shall bear;” nor “bethulah loves.”[12]

Secondly, the word is always used to clarify the noun na `arah (girl) or another female noun either as an adjective noun or in an adjective clause within the context of na `arah. Examples: “the girl [na `arah] was a very beautiful virgin [bethulah];” “Tamar [proper noun], for she was a virgin [bethulah];” or “my virgin [bethulah] daughter [noun].”[13]

Most significantly, bethulah is never used as a standalone noun to describe a specific female subject in Biblical texts. Some critics contend that since bethulah was not used in Isaiah 7:14, the prophecy cannot refer to a virgin even though using the word would violate all three Hebrew text usage rules.[14]

Only 7 times in Biblical Hebrew texts appears the word `almah and its word usage rules are strikingly different from bethulah. Translation of `almah is based as much on the circumstantial setting as it is on sentence structure.

As the direct female subject of a sentence, `almah appears only in present or future tense scenarios. Biblical examples: “`almah playing tambourines;” “`almah went and called;” “`almah love you;” “`almah comes out to draw water,” and “almah shall conceive and bear a Son.”[15]

Conversely, `almah is never used as an adjective noun nor used in an adjective clause to define the female subject; it is a standalone noun. No instances say, for example, “a na `arah who is an `almah;” “Tamar who is an `almah;” nor “my `almah daughter.”

As a standalone noun, `almah does not need further clarification with an adjective or adjective clause – the meaning of `almah is self-evident to mean “virgin.” (literary analysis)

Five instances of `almah occur in texts after the defining event when the Law was given by God to Moses at Mt. Sinai. Perhaps most revealing is that they always appear in royal circumstances:  virgins in the king’s harem, in a king’s presence, a king’s perspective, and the royalty of God’s musical worship.[16]

Only three instances appear in Hebrew texts where ha (“pointing to something of importance”) is added as a prefix to `almah, in essence saying, “behold, look at the almah.” Two of the occurrences are used in reference to Hebrew matrons before God’s Law legally defined the purity of virginity for marriage.[17]

Rebekah and Miriam are Hebrew matriarchs, according to Phillip E. Goble, Editor of The Orthodox Jewish Bible. Rebekah is revered as the “mother of the Nation of Israel” and Miriam is “the savior of the Exodus” (older sister of Moses) – Hebrew royalty.[18] Significance of their state of virginity occurs before entering their adult lives of greatness.[19]

Only one other appearance of ha-almah occurs in the entire Bible and it appears after the Law was handed down from God:  Isaiah 7:14. Written identically in Hebrew in both The Great Isaiah Scroll and the Masoretic text:[20]

IS 7:14 “Therefore the Lord himself will give you a sign: The virgin will conceive and give birth to a son, and will call him Immanuel.“(NIV)

Isaiah 7:14 has a dual application of royalty – King Ahaz and God. In the prophecy, the use of the words ha-almah  places the subject female in the highest echelon of Jewish importance.

From a different perspective, if the prophetic sign of Isaiah 7:14 was intended to refer to a female without an expectation of virginity, textual analysis dictates Isaiah would have been expected to use either na ‘arah or `ishshah; however, he didn’t. Instead, Isaiah used the rarest of Hebrew words to prophecy ha-almah would give birth to a son to be called Immanuel meaning “God with us.”[21]

King Ahaz had refused to accept God’s offer through Isaiah to name any sign between Heaven and Hell as proof of God’s promise to protect his kingdom from their enemies. God responded with a sign that was even greater – anything less would be unimpressive.

Is Isaiah 7:14 a prophecy about a virgin, greater than any between Heaven and Hell, that was fulfilled by Mary’s virgin birth of Jesus of Nazareth?

 

Updated December 18, 2023.

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

ASB = Amercian Standard Bible
BSB = Berean Study Bible
CSB = Christian Standard Bible
DBT = Darby Bible Translations
ESV = English Standard Version
HCS = Holman Christian Standard Bible
ISV = International Standard Version
JUB = Jubilee Bible 2000
NHE = New Heart Christian Bible
NIV = New International Verson
NKJV = New King James Verson
NLT = New Liviing Translation
OJB = Orthodox Jewish Bible
WEB = World English Bible
YLT = Young’s Literal Translation

REFERENCES:

[1] Isaiah 7:14. Hebrew text transliteration. BibleHub. 2019. <https://biblehub.com/text/isaiah/7-14.htm> hā·‘al·māh. Hebrew text. BibleHub.com. n.d. <https://biblehub.com/hebrew/haalmah_5959.htm>
[2] The Orthodox Jewish Bible. 2002. BibleHub. <https://biblehub.com/ojb/genesis/1.htm Young’s Literal Translation. 2019. <https://biblehub.com/ylt/genesis/1.htm>
[3] Isaiah 7:14. Hebrew text. NetBible.org. <http://classic.net.bible.org/verse.php?book=Isa&chapter=7&verse=14> ‘almah <05959>. NetBible.org. 2019. <http://classic.net.bible.org/strong.php?id=05959> “the.” Merriam-Webster. 2019. <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/the>  “the.” Cambridge Dictionary. n.d. <https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/the
[4] Goble, Phillip E, ed. “The Translator to the Reader.” The Orthodox Jewish Bible. 2002. Artists for Israel International. 2012. p vii. <http://www.afii.org/ojbible/ix.pdf
[5] Benner, Jeff A. “Introduction to Ancient Hebrew.”  Ancient Hebrew Research Center. 2019. <https://www.ancient-hebrew.org/introduction.htm>
[6] Benner. “Introduction to Ancient Hebrew.”
[7] Nahigian, Kenneth E.  “A Virgin-Birth Prophesy?” Skeptic Tank Files. n.d.<http://www.skeptictank.org/files/sr/2virgi93.htm> Cramer, Robert Nguyen.  “The Book of Isaiah.”  The BibleTexts.com. 1998 <http://www.bibletexts.com/verses/v-isa.htm>  Cline, Austin. “Who Was Virgin Mary, Mother of Jesus? Was She Really a Virgin?” About.com|Agnosticism/Atheism. n.d. <http://atheism.about.com/od/biblepeoplenewtestament/p/MaryVirgin.htm>  Yosef, Uri. “Isaiah 7:14 – Part 1: An Accurate Grammatical Analysis.” The Jewish Home. 2011. <http://thejewishhome.org/counter/Isa714_1.pdf>>   Bratcher, Dennis. The Voice. “Isaiah 7:14: Translation Issues.” 2014. <http://www.crivoice.org/isa7-14.html>  The Complete Jewish Bible with Rashi Commentary. n.d.  <http://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/63255/jewish/The-Bible-with-Rashi.htm>  CR Judges Chapter 13. John Gill’s Exposition of the Whole Bible.  Isaiah 7:14 commentary. <https://www.studylight.org/commentaries/geb/genesis-24.html
[8] Genesis 24:43 – ESV, NKJV, KJV, HCS, OJB; Exodus 2:8 – OJB; Isaiah 7:14 – NIV, NLT, ESV, BSB, NKJV, CSB, HCS, DBT, ISV, JUB, NHE, WEB, OJB; American Standard Version, 1901 Edition. Perseus.Tufts.Edu. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0156:book=Isaiah:chapter=7&highlight=virgin> Robinson, B.A. “Isaiah 7:14 “Behold, a virgin shall conceive…”” Religious Tolerance. 2007 <http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_proi.htm
[9] “almah.” Strong’s Concordance with Hebrew and Greek Lexicon. Eliyah.com. n.d. <http://www.eliyah.com/cgi-bin/strongs.cgi?file=hebrewlexicon&isindex=almah
[10] Net.bible.org. Hebrew text. Reference: TWOT – 1630b.  Strong. “`almah  <5959>  “damsel.”  Merriam-Webster. 2019. <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/damsel> “na`arah <05291>” NetBible.org. 2019. <http://classic.net.bible.org/strong.php?id=05291>  Mishneh Torah, Forbidden Intercourse 17.” Sefaria.org. Footnotes #48 & 49. n.d. <https://www.sefaria.org/Mishneh_Torah%2C_Forbidden_Intercourse.17.13?lang=bi&with=Navigation&lang2=en>
[11] “bthuwlah.” Strong’s Concordance with Hebrew and Greek Lexicon. Eliyah.com. n.d. <http://www.eliyah.com/cgi-bin/strongs.cgi?file=hebrewlexicon&isindex=bthuwlah>> Strong The New Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible. “ bethulah <1330>.” <http://classic.net.bible.org/strong.php?id=01330> Genesis 24:16. Net.bible.org. Hebrew text. “b@thuwlah <01330>;” footnote 1.  <http://classic.net.bible.org/verse.php?book=Gen&chapter=24&verse=16
[12] CR Isaiah 7:14; Psalms 68:25; Song of Solomon 1:3.
[13] Genesis 24:16, 2 Samuel 13:2. Soncino Babylonian Talmud. Ed. Isidore Epstein 1935-1948. Yebamoth 61b. Soncino Babylonian Talmud. <https://israelect.com/Come-and-Hear/yebamoth/yebamoth_61.html> CR 2 Samuel 13:18; I Kings 1:2.  “na`arah <05291>” NetBible.org. 2019. <http://classic.net.bible.org/strong.php?id=05291>
[14] Nahigian. “A Virgin-Birth Prophesy?” Cramer. “The Book of Isaiah.”  Cline. “Who Was Virgin Mary, Mother of Jesus? Was She Really a Virgin?” Yosef.. “Isaiah 7:14 – Part 1: An Accurate Grammatical Analysis.” Bratcher. “Isaiah 7:14: Translation Issues.”
[15] CR Genesis 24:16; Psalms 68:25; Song of Solomon 1:3, 6:8; Isaiah 7:14.
[16] CR Psalms 68:25; Proverbs 30:19; Song of Solomon 1:3, 6:8; Isaiah 7:14.
[17] Genesis 24:43; Exodus 2:8.
[18] Goble. “The Translator to the Reader.” p vii.Goble. “The Translator to the Reader.” p vii. Net.bible.org. Hebrew text. “`almah  <5959>” <http://classic.net.bible.org/strong.php?id=05959> Strong. The New Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible. “almah.”
[19] Goble. “The Translator to the Reader.” p vii.
[20] Miller. Fred P.  “The Translation of the Great Isaiah Scroll.” Book of Isaiah. 2001. Column VI Isa 6:7 to 7:15. <http://www.moellerhaus.com/qa-tran.htm “hmleh.” Net.bible.org. <http://classic.net.bible.org/search.php?search=hebrew_strict_index:hmleh> BibleHub.com. Interlinear Bible Hebrew text. Isaiah 7:14. “5959 [e] hā·‘al·māh”.< http://biblehub.com/interlinear/isaiah/7-14.htmOrthodox Jewish Bible (OJB). Isaiah 7:14.
[21] “`Immanuw’el <06005>. NetBible.org. 2019. <http://classic.net.bible.org/strong.php?id=06005> Isaiah 7.14. BibleHub.com. Strong’s Lexicon. “Immanuel.” <https://biblehub.com/parallel/isaiah/7-14.htm

Was Mary a Virgin When She Gave Birth To Jesus?

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

Was Mary a Virgin When Gave Birth to Jesus?

 

Frankly, no one can prove Jesus was born of a virgin and neither can anyone disprove it. Basic human biology and common sense dictates a virgin cannot naturally conceive – a miracle would be required. Believing Mary was a virgin who miraculously conceived Jesus, if not by faith, requires a conclusion based on the circumstantial evidence.

Indirect evidence – circumstantial evidence – when combined together leads to an inference or conclusion of a fact. Direct evidence, on the other hand, lends itself to proving a fact.[1]

Jewish marriage was a two-stage process – first the legal betrothal period typically lasting for 12 months, then consummation at the actual wedding. To begin the process, a proposal by the groom was offered to the prospective bride’s father if she was not an adult.

Negotiated details were eventually formally finalized in a formal legal marriage contract called a ketubah. Enacted by Judean Queen Salome Alexandra (76-67 BC) and formalized by the Sanhedrin long before Joseph or Mary were born, it placed a deed on the groom’s property.[2]

Ketubah 1023 AD

Talmud Kethuboth addresses the ketubah – the price of a virgin or non-virgin; what constitutes virginity status; default recourses; etc. Two important components of a ketubah, in this instance, are virginity and witnesses. 

Family intermediaries vetted the couple’s families, backgrounds and defined the terms of the contract. Financial details were negotiated including the bride price, the dowry, and any contributions from both families.

Monetary values for virgins and non-virgins were predefined by the Sanhedrin, the value of a virgin was twice that of a non-virgin stipulated in a ketubah document.[4] Two family intermediaries signed the ketubah as witnesses meaning the bride was confirmed to be a virgin.[3]

For the bride, the ketubah provided a trust fund in the event of the husband’s death or a divorce excepting for the disqualifying factor of adultery. For the groom, the ketubah factually and legally established his betrothal was a virgin.[5]

Details of the ketubah contract found in the Jewish Encyclopedia twice makes specific reference to the prospective bride’s virginity:[6]

…“And I will set aside for thee 200 zuz, in lieu of thy virginity, which belong to thee (according to the law of Moses)…”

…“We have followed the legal formality of symbolical delivery [“ḳinyan”] between _____ son of ______ , the bridegroom, and ______ daughter of ______ , this virgin, and have employed an instrument legally fit for the purpose to strengthen all that is stated above, and everything is valid and established.

…………..Bridegroom.

…………..

…………..Witnesses.[7]

During Mary’s betrothal, according to Luke, the angel Gabriel announced she would bear a son conceived by the Holy Spirit to which Mary replied, “How can this be, since I am a virgin?”[8] In addition to the ketubah with its two signed witnesses, by her own account Mary was a virgin. 

Gabriel also informed Mary that her cousin Elizabeth was 6 months pregnant.[9] Excited by this news, she “went in a hurry to the hill country, to a city of Judah” to visit Elizabeth – Mary left almost immediately.[10]

From Nazareth to Elizabeth’s home, the trip would have taken 3 to 7 days depending on the town’s exact location near Jerusalem.[11] Elizabeth knew in advance that Mary was with child and at the moment of hearing Mary’s voice, the babe in Elizabeth’s womb (who would become John the Baptist) leapt with joy.[12]

Today’s modern medical pregnancy tests are effective, at the earliest, 10 days after conception and most reliably not until after 3 weeks. At best, a modern medical blood test can detect pregnancy in as early as 6 days.[13]

In this very short span of about a week, Mary became pregnant. No human could have known she was pregnant at that point, not even Mary herself were it not for Gabriel’s message and Elizabeth’s exclamation.

Joseph can be ruled out as the father based on his own reaction of wanting to divorce Mary when he unexpectedly learned months later she was pregnant. The possibility that Mary had a secret paramour is a realistic possibility if one does not accept Matthew’s account at face value.[14]

Playing out that possibility, it would be most challenging for a sheltered girl in her early teens still living at home with her parents.[15] To cheat on Joseph, Mary would have to overcome immense hurdles – mentally, spiritually, psychologically, emotionally as well as the fear factor.

Mentally, Gabriel’s visit had to be a most impactful, shocking and earth-shattering experience. Mary was told not only told she was pregnant, but of her future son, “He will be great and will be called the Son of the Most High; and the Lord God will give Him the throne of His father David.”[16]

Spiritually, to lose her virginity would be breaking her commitment to Gabriel and God. Mary had made a commitment to Gabriel and to God saying, “Let it be to me according to your word.”[17]

Psychologically and emotionally, infidelity would mean betrayal. Mary would have to be willing to betray her own reputation and that of her family, friends, and Joseph bringing them all great shame and disgrace.

Forfeiture of her future financial security was at-risk by breaking the terms of her ketubah contract. The foreboding fear of death by stoning for adultery was perhaps the greatest deterrent of all.[18]

Physically she would have to circumvent several traditional safeguards. Betrothed girls subject to Judaic Law were under strict supervision of family and the watchful eye of the community.

Unmarried girls were not allowed to be alone at any time with an adult male, not even a family member.[19] If she went anywhere, a chaperone was required.

If Mary didn’t have a tryst before leaving Nazareth, the only other opportunity would be on the journey to visit Elizabeth. Hurriedly preparing for the spur-of-the-moment trip to visit her cousin, in order to cheat Mary would have had to slip away from these guardians of virtue during the short journey.

Mary would have been required to travel in a caravan with a family-chosen chaperone and her secret paramour would have had to be traveling, too.[20] They would have had to find an opportunity to secretly cavort without being caught. If Mary became pregnant during the trip, she would have only been pregnant for less than a week and not aware of it.

Elizabeth’s words may be the strongest piece of evidence. Upon seeing Mary, she blurted out, “Blessed are you among women, and blessed is the fruit of your womb!”[21] Would an illegitimate pregnancy have been divinely revealed to Elizabeth who exclaimed to Mary that the baby in her womb was blessed?

Circumstantial evidence that Mary was a virgin is very strong – was Mary a virgin when she conceived Jesus?

 

Updated January 19, 2024.

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1] “circumstantial evidence.” Cornell Law School. Legal Information Institute. n.d. <https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/circumstantial_evidence> Last accessed 6 Jan. 2024. “evidence.” Merriam-Webster. 2024. <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/evidence#legalDictionary> “What is the definition of direct evidence? ”Shourse California Law Group. 2023.<https://www.shouselaw.com/ca/blog/direct-evidence-defintion/#:~:text=Direct%20evidence%20is%20defined%20as%20evidence%20that%20directly,the%20defendant%E2%80%99s%20forged%20signature%20on%20an%20insurance%20application> 
[2] “Salome Alexandria.” Jewish Virtual Library. 2018. <https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/salome-alexandria> “Alexandria.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1167-alexandra>  “Ketubah.”  Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/9290-ketubah>  “Marriage: Ketubbah.” Jewish Virtual Library. 2008. <https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/ketubbah> Schauss, Hayyim. “Ancient Jewish Marriage.”  MyJewishLearning.com. n.d. <https://web.archive.org/web/20170911230617/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/ancient-jewish-marriage/>“The Forgotten Ancient Queen: Salome Alexandra of Judea.” Ancient History. <http://etc.ancient.eu/interviews/the-forgotten-ancient-queen-salome-alexandra-of-judea/>  Soncino Babylonian Talmud. Ed. Isidore Epstein. “Kethuboth.”  <https://israelect.com/Come-and-Hear/talmud/index.html>  “Ketubah.”  Soncino Babylonian Talmud. Ed. Isidore Epstein. Glossary. <https://israelect.com/Come-and-Hear/tglossary.html#K>  ketubah (no title). JewishPress.com. photo. n.d. 2015. http://i0.wp.com/www.jewishpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Ancient-Ketubah-written-in-Tzefat-whole-year-1063-CE.jpg?resize=282,475> <https://www.jewishpress.com/news/breaking-news/rare-1000-yr-old-ketuba-on-exhibit-in-jerusalem/2015/05/26> Brayer, Menachem M.  The Jewish Woman in Rabbinic Literature. 1986. pp 62-65, 69, 71, 143. <https://archive.org/details/jewishwomaninrab0000bray_a4j0/page/143/mode/2up>  Missler, Chuck. “The Wedding Model.” Koinonia House, Inc. 2018. <http://www.khouse.org/articles/2003/449/#notes>  Jewish Wedding Ceremony. Chabad.org. n.d. <https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/476757/jewish/Jewish-Wedding-Ceremony.htm#The> “Yichud Room.” Chabad.org. n.d. <https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/477338/jewish/Yichud-Room.htm>  Kaufman, Michael. “After the Wedding Ceremony.” MyJewishLearning.com. n.d.<https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/after-the-wedding-ceremony>
[3] “Ketubah.” Jewish Encyclopedia.  “Dowry.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5297-dowry> Singer, Isidore; Adler, Cyrus, et. al.  The Jewish Encyclopedia. Volume 9. 1912. “Pharisees.” p 663 <https://books.google.com/books?id=lfoOtGOcIBYC&lpg=PA594&ots=6qoCfVVUz7&dq> Schauss, Hayyim.  “Ancient Jewish Marriage.” 
[4] “Ketubah” and “Dowry.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011.  Singer et. al.  The Jewish Encyclopedia. Vol. 9 “Pharisees.” p 663.  Singer et. al.  The Jewish Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. “Mortgage or Hypothec.” p 37.  “Mishneh Torah, Virgin Maiden 1.” Sefaria.org. n.d. <https://www.sefaria.org/Mishneh_Torah%2C_Virgin_Maiden.1.5?lang=bi>  Soncino Babylonian Talmud. Ed. Isidore Epstein.1935-1948. Kethuboth. n.d. <https://israelect.com/Come-and-Hear/kethuboth/index.html>  “Legal-Religious Status of the Virgin.” Jewish Women’s Archive. n.d. <https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/legal-religious-status-of-virgin>
[5] Soncino Babylonian Talmud. Kethuboth 12a. CR Deuteronomy 22:15,
[6] Lamm, Maurice. “The Jewish Marriage Contract (Ketubah).” Chabad.org. <https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/465168/jewish/The-Jewish-Marriage-Contract-Ketubah.htm>
[7] “Ketubah.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011.
[8] Luke 1:34. NASB, NRSV.
[9] Luke 1.
[10] Luke 1:39. NASB.
[11] Luke 1:39.  “Judah.”  Jewish Virtual Library. 2018. <https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/judah>
[12] Luke 1.
[13] “Pregnancy Tests.” 23 June 2012. WebMD. 2018. <http://www.webmd.com/baby/guide/pregnancy-tests> “Pregnancy Test.” MedlinePlus. U.S. National Library of Medicine. 2018. <http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003432.htm> “Home pregnancy tests: Can you trust the results?” Mayo Clinic. 2018. <http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/getting-pregnant/in-depth/home-pregnancy-tests/art-20047940> 
[14] Burke, Rodney Wade. Quora. “Do atheists believe Mary engaged in adultery as I do as a Jew?  2015. <https://www.quora.com/Do-atheists-believe-Mary-engaged-in-adultery-as-I-do-as-a-Jew>  “Panthera, the real father of Jesus?” The Evolving Atheist’s Blog. 2009. https://evolvingatheist.wordpress.com/2009/07/05/panthera-the-real-father-of-jesus>
[15] West, Jim. “Ancient Israelite Marriage Customs.”  Quartz Hill School of Theology.  n.d.  http://www.theology.edu/marriage.htm>  Edersheim. The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah. Book II, Chapter 4.
[16] Luke 1:32. NASB. NKJV.
[17] Luke 1:38. NKJV.
[18] Sanhedrin 53a, footnote #3; 59a; 63a; 66b. <https://israelect.com/Come-and-Hear/sanhedrin/index.html>
[19] Soncino Babylonian Talmud. Kethuboth 12a, 12b, 13a, 13b.  “Adultery.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011.  Brayer. The Jewish Woman in Rabbinic Literature. pp 142-143.
[20] Brayer. The Jewish Woman in Rabbinic Literature. p 142-143.
[21] NRSV, NASB, NKJV, ESV, Berean, WEB.