The Ultimate Paradox

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

Quite possibly the greatest paradox in the history of the world occurred when Jesus of Nazareth was tried by Jewish magnates for the offense of blasphemy. The open question is whether or not Jesus was telling the truth when he declared himself to be the Messiah.

According to the Cambridge Dictionary, a definition of “paradox” is “a statement or situation that may be true but seems impossible or difficult to understand because it contains two opposite facts or characteristics.”^[1]

Blasphemy is defined in God’s Law in Leviticus where the consequences of being guilty of the offense was the death penalty.^[2] Jewish sages in the Talmud Mishna and Gemara, written during the era of Jesus, expounded that blasphemy is defined as uttering the name of God and may also include cursing, piercing or incorrectly blessing His name.^[3]

Once Jesus had said, “the Father is in Me, and I in the Father” and on another occasion, Jesus had said “…unless you believe that I AM, you’ll die in your sins.”^[4] Practically every Hebrew knew “I AM” is another name of God, the LORD.

Matthew and Luke record that Jesus was in the Temple when he referred to Isaiah 56:7 saying “My House will be called a house of prayer.”^[5] Jesus proclaimed the Temple is his house, the place where God’s Name dwells, a declaration with major implications.

Previously, Jesus had challenged people who didn’t believe that he is the Son of God should, instead, believe in the miraculous deeds he performed and Nicodemus was one of those people.^[6] Miracles performed by Jesus; however, didn’t seem to matter to those judging him even though such miracles included dead people being were brought back to life.

Enduring the middle-of-the-night trial, Jesus was judged by the Sanhedrin body consisting of priests and members of influential families. Priests had been commissioned by God to stand before Him as judges to honor and to preserve the Law.^[7]

High Priest Caiaphas led the aberrant trial and at its crescendo asked Jesus very specifically, “Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?” Under oath Jesus answered, “ I Am.”^[8]

Caiaphas immediately understood the answer and declared, both with words and actions, that it was a blasphemy. A guilty verdict was then rendered by the Sanhedrin body.^[9]

Undercurrents of the trial steeped in Hebrew history were hugely significant. Starting in the Book of Genesis, it tells the story when Abram (Abraham) left Ur of the Chaldees in modern day Iran with his father and family and moved to a new land in Palestine.^[10]

Mt. Moriah became the location in this new homeland where Abraham took his miraculously born son, Isaac, to be sacrificed upon the command of God. Passing this test of faith, Abraham’s only son was spared at the last moment.^[11]

Scrolling forward some 400 hundred years, the Book of Exodus describes the Hebrew nation escaping Egypt and going to the base of Mt. Sinai. In addition to handing down the Law to Moses, God made prophetic promises that had future implications to the location and timing of the trial.^[12]

A city called Salem had been already built in Palestine before Abraham’s life and was now called Jebus. While conquering enemies in the land of Abraham, Jebus was overtaken by Israel’s army led by King David and came to be known as Jerusalem which encompassed Mt. Moriah.

Another promise God made at Mt. Sinai was to provide “the permanent place for His Name to dwell” and it came about with a most unusual twist.^[13] King David offered an atonement sacrifice for a grievous lack of faith in God located on a threshing floor which happened to be on Mt. Moriah.

Fire came down from Heaven to ignite the atonement sacrifice. David was so moved by these circumstances, the King chose that spot to be the future site for the Temple, “the permanent place for His Name to dwell.”^[14]

God also promised at Mt. Sinai that the most complicated cases in the land were to be litigated in the place. The Sanhedrin served as the supreme court of Israel making Jerusalem the Judgement Seat of Israel.^[15]

Timing was a significant factor in the dichotomy of the trial circumstances. On the first day of Passover at its appointed time, the trial and crucifixion of Jesus occurred.^[16]

Paradoxically, if Jesus is the Son of God, he was judged at God’s appointed time at the Passover; at the place God promised where His Name dwells; by Jewish leaders including priests; in defense of God’s own Law; in the holy city of Jerusalem; God’s chosen Judgement Seat of Israel; and found guilty of blasphemy of God.^[17]

Were the circumstances of the trial and execution of Jesus as the Son of God the paradox of paradoxes; or, was Jesus a heretic for which there is no paradox, just merely a series of coincidences?

Updated November 4, 2024

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1] “paradox.” Cambridge Dictionary. 2023. <https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/paradox> “The Paradox.” YouTube.com. image. 2015. <https://i.ytimg.com/vi/hRCedoRPyyo/maxresdefault.jpg>
[2] Exodus 22:28; Leviticus 24:15-16.
[3] Soncino Babylonian Talmud. Ed. Isidore Epstein. Sanhedrin 55b-56a. <https://israelect.com/Come-and-Hear/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_55.html>
[4] Matthew 21:13; Luke 19:46.
[5] John 10:38. John 8:24. ISV.
[6] John 3:1-2.
[7] Leviticus 19:15-18; Deuteronomy 1:16-17, 17:8-13, 19:15-21, 25:1. CR Exodus 18; 28:1; Numbers 8:14, Deuteronomy 16:18-19, 18:1-6, 21:5; II Chronicles 8:14; 19:8-11; Nehemiah 11:10-18. “Priest.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011.. <https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12358-priest> Ariel, Yisrael. “The Chamber of the Hewn Stone.” The Temple Institute. 2019. <https://www.templeinstitute.org/illustrated/hewn_stone_description.htm> Ariel. “Blueprints for the Holy Temple.” <http://www.templeinstitute.org/blueprints-for-the-holy-temple.htm>
[8] Mark 14:61. ISV, NLT, NRSV. CR Matthew 9:6, 26.64; Mark 2:10-11, 8:31, 14.62; Luke 5:24, 9:22, 22:69.
[9] “Sanhedrin.” JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2007. <https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13178-sanhedrin> Schoenberg, Shira. JewishVirtualLibrary.org. “Ancient Jewish History: The Sanhedrin.” n.d. <https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-sanhedrin> Shurpin, Yehuda. Chadad.org. “The Sanhedrin: The Jewish Court System.” n.d. <https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/4100306/jewish/The-Sanhedrin-The-Jewish-Court-System.htm
[10] Genesis 11:31.
[11] Genesis 22:1.
[12] II Chronicles 3:1; II Samuel 5:6-11. Josephus. Antiquities. Book VII, Chapter III. Ryrie Study Bible. Ed. Ryrie Charles C. “Laws relating to conquests” ref. Ex. 23:20-33.
[13] Exodus 23; 29:43-46; 33; Deuteronomy 12:11-14, 16: 11,18-20, 17:8-10; Numbers 34:1-15; I Chronicles 17:3-10. CR Exodus 30:36, 40:2-11, 34-38; Leviticus 16:2; II Samuel 7:12-13.
[14] Deuteronomy 16:1,6. I Chronicles 21:18-26. CR Exodus 12:14-15; Leviticus 23:4-8. CR Deuteronomy 16:1-8; II Chronicles 8:12-14, chapter 29, 35:1-6.
[15] Deuteronomy 17:8. CR Exodus 19:6. “Sanhedrin.” JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2011. <https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13178-sanhedrin
[16] CR Exodus 12:14-15; Leviticus 23:4-8. CR Deuteronomy 16:1-8; II Chronicles chapters 8, 29, 34-35:19; Ezra 6:16-22. CR Leviticus 23:4-6; Numbers 9:2, 28:16-17. Edersheim, Alfred. The Temple – Its Ministry and Services. 1826 -1889. <https://ccel.org/ccel/edersheim/temple/temple.i.html> Coulter, Fred R. cbcg.org. The Christian Passover. “Chapters 12-13, Part 1. n.d. <https://www.cbcg.org/booklets/the-christian-passover/chapter-twelve-when-and-why-the-temple-sacrifice-of-the-passover-was-instituted-part-one.html
[17] Exodus 26:31-37. Deuteronomy 12:11-14, 16:18-20; 17:8-10; 18:1-8, 19:15-18.

The Temple – Significance to the Trial of Jesus

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

The Temple – Significance to the Trial of Jesus

Prosecution by Caiaphas during the overnight trial of Jesus of Nazareth was not going well because no two witnesses could agree on the same accusation as required by Jewish law.^[1] Finally two witnesses presented the same accusation:

^{MK 14:58} “”We heard Him say, ‘I will destroy this temple made with hands, and in three days I will build another made without hands.’”” _(NASB)^[2]

Not quite the same according to the Gospel accounts of Mark and John.^[3] Jesus actually said, “Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up.”^[4]

No legitimate Jew would ever think of destroying the Temple – it was the sacred House of God. Rebuilding the Temple in 3 days was a feat that only God could do resulting in the accusation being foundational to the charge of blasphemy.

Hours later, the charge persisted at his crucifixion site suggesting the mockers had been at the trial. The taunters asked Jesus that if he could destroy and rebuild the Temple in 3 days, why couldn’t he save himself from the cross?^[5]

. . . . .

History of the Temple began at Mt. Sinai with Moses. Atop Mt. Sinai, God not only gave Moses the Law, He also made five big promises to the Hebrews all tied to the place.

Three of those promises – the permanent dwelling place for His Name; the place to observe the three annual pilgrim feasts; and the judgment seat of Israel – all specifically involved the future Temple.^[6]

Until promises of the place came to fruition, instructions were given to the Hebrews for a temporary mobile structure as the place for God’s Name to dwell, a tent called the Tabernacle.^[7] God’s design for the Tabernacle served as a type of blueprint for the future Temple, its usage and contents.^[8]

Centuries later, King David wanted to build the permanent House of God, but God had other plans. Prophet Nathan delivered the message that David’s future son would fulfill the promise given to Moses to build the Temple.^[9]

Wanting to atone for his sin as their King resulting in the deaths of thousands of Hebrews, David found Jebusite Araunah’s threshing floor on high ground as a suitable place for this sacrifice.^[10]

Araunah’s threshing floor was located on Mt. Moriah. It was the same place that a thousand years earlier Abraham took his only son, Isaac, to be sacrificed then spared at the last moment, but the Scriptures do not say whether the King knew this.^[11]

Using his own money, the King bought the threshing floor along with all its equipment to use as the fuel for the sacrifice.^[12] Building an altar himself, the King prepared the offering.

Fire came down from Heaven and consumed the sacrifice on the altar. Moved deeply, David declared “This is the house of the LORD God, and this is the altar of burnt offerings for Israel.”^[13]

Temple construction began in the fourth year of King Solomon’s reign and was completed seven years later.^[14] Solomon held a public consecration for the permanent dwelling place for the Name of God and prepared a sacrifice on the altar in front of the new Temple declaring:^[15]

^{2 CH 6:2-11} “I have surely built You an exalted house, and a place for You to dwell in forever.”_(NKJV)

Spectacularly in the presence of all the Hebrews, God again sent down fire from Heaven to consume the sacrifice. It left no doubt this was the place for the Temple to serve as the dwelling place for the Name of God.^[17]

During the night, God appeared to Solomon reminding the King that although He had fulfilled His promises from Mt. Sinai, it was not carte blanche – it came with a stipulation:^[18]

^{2 CH 7:19-20}“But if you turn away and forsake My statutes and My commandments which I have set before you, and go and serve other gods, and worship them, then I will uproot them from My land which I have given them; and this house which I have sanctified for My name I will cast out of My sight, and will make it a proverb and a byword among all peoples.”_(NKJV)

Centuries of ignoring warnings from many prophets resulted in the penalty stipulation being enacted – the army of King Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem and the Temple. After 70 years of captivity in Babylon, the Second Temple was rebuilt under the decree of Persian King Cyrus with continued support from Kings Darius and Artaxerxes.^[19]

King Herod enhanced the Second Temple, though primarily for his own personal ambitions, was able to sell the idea to the Jewish leadership saying he wanted to bring the Temple back to the intended grandeur of King Solomon which had been unaffordable at the time it was rebuilt.^[20] The enhanced Second Temple, also called Herod’s Temple by many, became the location of the trial Jesus of Nazareth.^[21]

. . . . .

Caiaphas asked Jesus to explain the accusations, but received no answer. As the High Priest, he had to be aware of the prophecy by the Hebrew prophet Zechariah foretelling the Branch would build the Temple:

^{Zech 6:12-13} “…Behold, the Man whose name is the BRANCH! From His place He shall branch out, And He shall build the temple of the LORD; Yes, He shall build the temple of the LORD. He shall bear the glory, And shall sit and rule on His throne; So He shall be a priest on His throne, And the counsel of peace shall be between them both.” _(NKJV)

Knowing the magnitude of the accusation for the ability to rebuild the Temple in 3 days had divine implications, it was evidenced by the next direct question by the prosecutor. Caiaphus cut straight to the heart of the trial pointedly asking Jesus:

“Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?”_{(ISV, NRSV)}^[22]

Jesus answered, “I Am,” serving as sufficient proof to Caiaphas that he had spoken a blasphemy. The High Priest and the Sanhedrin serving as jurors took actions to have Jesus put to death.^[23]

Was the claim by Jesus that he would rebuild the Temple in 3 days a daring metaphoric prediction spoken by the Son of God or was it a delusional claim of a man saying he would physically destroy and rebuild the Temple in three days?

Updated December 5, 2024.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1] Deuteronomy 17:6, 19:15; Numbers 35:30. Soncino Babylonian Talmud. Ed. Isidore Epstein. Sanhedrin 9a, 30a. <https://israelect.com/Come-and-Hear/sanhedrin/index.html> Resnicoff, Steven H. “Criminal Confessions in Jewish Law.” Project Genesis. 2007. <http://www.jlaw.com/Commentary/crimconfess.html>
[2] CR Matthew 26:60-61.
[3] Mark 14:59, John 2:19-21.
[4] John 2:19-21. NASB.
[5] Mark 15:29.
[6] Deuteronomy 12:5, 11, 16:6; 17:8-10. CR Exodus 12:14-15; Leviticus 23:4-8. CR Deuteronomy 16:1-8; II Chronicles 8:12-14, chapter 29, 35:1-6.
[7] Exodus 25:8-9. Leviticus 9:126:11; Numbers 9:15; Deuteronomy 12:22, 16:2, 6, 26:2; 2 Chronicles 5:2-10; I Kings 8:10.
[8] 1 Kings 6. 2 Chronicles 5-6.
[9] 2 Samuel 7:12-17.
[10] “Threshing.” Encyclopedia.com. 2019. <https://www.encyclopedia.com/plants-and-animals/agriculture-and-horticulture/agriculture-general/threshing> “Agriculture.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14378-thrashing-floor
[11] 2 Chronicles 3:1. CR Genesis 22. Josephus. Antiquates. Book I, Chapter III.
[12] I Chronicles 21:18-26; 2 Samuel 24:18-25. Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. Book VII, Chapter XIII.3. <https://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=Araunah&f=false> Dolphin, Lambert. “Mount Moriah, Site of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.” TempleMount.org. 1996. <http://www.templemount.org/moriah2.html>
[13] I Chronicles 22:1. NKJV.
[14] 1 Kings 6:1, 37-38. CR 2 Chronicles 3:1-2.
[15] 2 Chronicles 6:1-7.
[16] “The Temple.” The Victor’s Place. photo. Feb. 2. ? <https://images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;_ylt=AwrCwOUslAdjzRoASQ0PxQt.;_ylu=Y29sbwNiZjEEcG9zAzEEdnRpZAMEc2VjA3BpdnM-?p=The+Temple%2C+Jerusalem&type=yhs-adk_sbnt_appfocus1_sm_ff&param1=20210118&param2=00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000&param3=searchmanager_%7EUS%7Eappfocus1%7E&param4=%7Efirefox%7E%7E&hsimp=yhs-adk_sbnt&hspart=adk&grd=1&ei=UTF-8&fr=yhs-adk-adk_sbnt#id=96&iurl=https%3A%2F%2Fvhoagland.files.wordpress.com%2F2021%2F02%2Fdsc00129.jpg&action=click>
[17] 2 Chronicles 7:1-3.
[18] 2 Chronicles 7:11-18.
[19] Ezekiel 1:2-3; 6:7,12; 7:12-13, 23, 26. “Building the Second Temple.” My Jewish Learning. 2019. <https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/second-templer> Cohney, Shelley. The Jewish Temples: The Second Temple.” Jewish Virtual Library. 2019. <https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-second-temple>
[20] “Herod the Great.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2019. <https://www.livius.org/articles/person/herod-the-great> Josephus. Antiquities. Book XV, Chapter XI. Edersheim, Alfred. The Temple – Its Ministry and Services. 1826 -1889. Chapter 1. <http://www.ntslibrary.com/PDF%20Books/The%20Temple%20by%20Alfred%20Edersheim.pdf> Hegg, Tim. “Separating the Most Holy from the Holy: The ‘Veil’ in the Tabernacle and First & Second Temples” Torah Resource. <http://www.torahresource.com/EnglishArticles/Veil%20ETS%20Paper.pdf> Spiro Ken. “History Crash Course #31: Herod the Great.” Aish.com. 2001. <https://www.aish.com/jl/h/cc/48942446.html> “Rebuild Herod’s Temple? A Few Israelis Hope.” New York Times. April 9, 1989. <https://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/09/world/rebuild-herod-s-temple-a-few-israelis-hope.html>
[21] Numbers 11:16-17, 24. Ariel, Yisrael. “The Chamber of the Hewn Stone.” The Temple Institute. 2019. <https://www.templeinstitute.org/illustrated/hewn_stone_description.htm> Ariel. “Blueprints for the Holy Temple.” <http://www.templeinstitute.org/blueprints-for-the-holy-temple.htm>
[22]2] Mark 14:61.
[23] Matthew 26:62-66; Mark 14:612-65; Luke 22:70-71.

Is Crucifixion Accursed by God?

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

Is Crucifixion Accursed by God?

Initially in Roman culture, fated soles were executed as judicial punishment for committing serious crimes such as murder, robbery and insurrection. With time, reasons for crucifixions expanded.

Thousands of Jews, including priests, were crucified by the Romans for non-criminal, nefarious reasons such as simple hatred, spitefulness or merely for entertainment.^[1] Judaism holds that a person who is hanged is accursed by God.

MISHNAH

“… the sages say: only the blasphemer and the idolater are hanged._(Soncino)

“…but thou shalt surely bury him the same day for he is hanged [because of] a curse against God, – as if to say why was he hanged? – Because he cursed the name [of God]; and so the name of the name of Heaven [God] is profaned. _(Soncino)

Scriptural basis for this belief is found in the Law of Moses in Deuteronomy. Very plainly it says that anyone who is hanged on a tree is accursed of God.

^{DT. 21:23}“his body shall not remain overnight on the tree, but you shall surely bury him that day, so that you do not defile the land which the LORD your God is giving you as an inheritance; for he who is hanged is accursed of God.” _(NKJV)

Connecting “tree” and “cross” is made through translations of the Deuteronomy Hebrew text word `ets meaning “a tree or wood timber.”^[2] Jewish translators of the Septuagint LXX used the Greek word xulon meaning “tree” or “wood.” Jewish and Christian Bibles alike nearly all translate Hebrew word`ets in Deuteronomy as “tree” or “pole.”^[3]

Crucifixion involved a victim being hanged from its wood cross-timber beam attached to an upright wood pole often called a gibbet. Therein lies the connection of the Deuteronomy Law to a cross being considered a “tree” or “pole.”^[4]

Committing the offense of blasphemy or idolatry was so reprehensible, execution was not even enough – public hanging of a corpse would tell everyone the person was accursed by God. A Mishnah and a Gemera in the Talmud defines what is to be done with the body that has been executed by hanging.^[5]

MISHNAH

“All who are stoned are [afterwards] hanged. _(Soncino)

Gemara

“The rabbis taught: It reads [Deut. xxi. 22]: “And he be put to death, and thou hang him on a tree.””

“The rabbis taught: If the verse read, “If a man committed a sin, he shall be hanged,” we would say that he should be hanged until death occurs, as the government does; but it reads, “He shall be put to death and hanged,” which means he shall be put to death and thereafter hanged.”_(Rodkinson)

Thousands of Jews crucified by the Romans conceivably could not have been viewed as being accursed by God.^[6] Jesus of Nazareth was crucified like any other Jew by the Romans and buried by two prominent Jewish Council members.^[7]

Judaism teaches Jesus was accursed by God because he was hanged on a tree thereby disqualifying him as the Messiah:^[8]

“The very form of his punishment would disprove those claims in Jewish eyes. No Messiah that Jews could recognize could suffer such a death; for “He that is hanged is accursed of God” (Deut. xxi. 23), ‘an insult to God’ (Targum, Rashi).” – JewishEnclopedia.com

Jewish leadership believed that the case of Jesus should be handled differently and as such an exception to Jewish Law was needed to distinguish the crucifixion of Jesus from that of other crucified Jews. Sanhedrin 43a describes an exception made for “Yeshu, the Nasarean” through his royal lineage of King David:^[9]

Gemara ^[10]

“…On the eve of the Passover Yeshu [^#34:the Nasarean] was hanged…But since nothing was brought forward in his favour he was hanged on the eve of the Passover!.…With Yeshu however it was different, for he was connected with the government [or royalty, i.e., influential].” _(Soncino)

Caiaphas and the Jewish leadership found Jesus guilty of blasphemy for claiming to be I AM, an offense worthy of execution.^[11] This posed another hurdle that had to be overcome: Rome did not recognize a Jewish court verdict, especially for the capital Jewish crime of blasphemy.^[12]

Instead, the Jewish leadership handed Jesus over to the Roman government under the accusation of failure to pay taxes and insurrection.^[13] If convicted, either Roman crime would result in the same outcome – crucifixion on a cross, a wooden tree.^[14]

Indeed, Jesus was judged by the Roman government for insurrection. However, the plan seemed to backfire when neither Tetrarch Herod nor Procurator Pilate found any guilt in Jesus despite admitting to Pilate that he is a King.^[15]

Not guilty of any Roman crimes, yet under pressure at the strong behest of the Jews, Pilate still condemned Jesus to crucifixion. Pilate was compelled to wash his hands of the aberrant circumstances saying, “I am innocent of this man’s blood.”^[16]

Does the crucifixion of Jesus mean he was accused by God?

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1] Josephus. Wars. Book V, Chapter XI. Ciantar, Joe Zammit. Times Malta.
[2] “H6086.” Lexicon-Concordance Online Bible. n.d. http://lexiconcordance.com/search6.asp?sw=6086&sm=0&x=42&y=16> Benner, Jeff. “Mechanical Translation of the Torah.” Deuteronomy 21:23. <http://www.mechanical-translation.org/mtt/D21.html>
[3] Net.bible.org. Deuteronomy 21:22, Hebrew text “`ets <06086>” “Septuagint text, Greek “xulon <3586>” <http://classic.net.bible.org/strong.php?id=3586> Bible Hub. 2017. Deuteronomy 21:22. <http://biblehub.com> Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. Book XII, Chapter II. The Complete Works of Josephus. 1850. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false> “Septuagint.” Septuagint.Net. 2014. <http://septuagint.net> “Septuagint.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2014. Benner, Jeff A. “The Great Isaiah Scroll and the Masoretic Text.” Ancient Hebrew Research Center. 2013. <http://www.ancient-hebrew.org/31_masorite.html> Lundberg, Marilyn J. “The Leningrad Codex.” USC West Semitic Research Project. 2012. <https://web.archive.org/web/20170403025034/http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/wsrp/educational_site/biblical_manuscripts/LeningradCodex.shtml> The Complete Jewish Bible with Rashi Commentary. Devarim – Deuteronomy, Chapter 21. <http://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/9985#showrashi=true> Benner, Jeff, “Mechanical Translation of the Torah.” 2017. Deuteronomy 21. <http://www.mechanical-translation.org/mtt/D21.html>
[4] The Babylonian Talmud. Trans. Michael L. Rodkinson. 1918. Mishnah IV Gemara. <http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/talmud.htm> Soncino Babylonian Talmud. Ed. Isidore Epstein. 1935-1948. Sanhedrin 46b Gemara.<https://israelect.com/Come-and-Hear/talmud/index.html> “Recollections on Crucifixion – Part one.” image. 2022. <https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/recollections-on-crucifixion-part-one.861097>
[5] Soncino Babylonian Talmud. Sanhedrin 45b – 46a. Babylonian Talmud. Rodkinson. Chapter VI, Mishna V.
[6] Josephus, Flavius. Wars of the Jews. Book II, Chapters V, XIII, XIV; Book IV, Chapter V; Book V, Chapters VI, XI. The Complete Works of Josephus. 1850. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false> Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. Book XX, Chapter VI.2. The Complete Works of Josephus. 1850. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false>
[7] Matthew 27:57-61. Mark 15:42-47. Luke 23:50-56. John 19:38-42.
[8] “Jesus of Nazareth.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8616-jesus-of-nazareth> “God Cannot die!” TorahOfMessiah.com. 2012. <https://web.archive.org/web/20140331233206/http://www.torahofmessiah.com/godcantdie.html>
[9] Matthew 27:57-61. Mark 15:42-47. Luke 23:50-56. John 19:38-42.
[10] Soncino Babylonian Talmud. Ed. Epstein, Isidor. “Introduction to the Seder Nezikin.” Soncino Babylonian Talmud. Shachter & Freedman. “Introduction to Sanhedrin.” Soncino Babylonian Talmud. Sanhedrin Chapter VI, Folio 43a. Greenberg, Eric J. “Jesus’ Death Now Debated by Jews.” Jewish Journal. 2003. Reprinted from The Jewish Week. <http://jewishjournal.com/news/world/8546>
[11] NASB. Luke 22:67-70. CR Matthew 26:63-65; Mark 14-63-65.
[12] Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. Book XX, Chapters IX. The Complete Works of Josephus. n.d <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false>
[13] Luke 23:1-3.
[14] Antiquities. Book XX, Chapter V. Josephus. Wars. Book II, Chapters V, XIV. Ashby, Carol. Life in the Roman Empire. n.d. “Crime and Punishment.” <https://carolashby.com/crime-and-punishment-in-the-roman-empire>
[15] Matthew 27:11; Mark 15:2; Luke 23:3, 13-15; John 18:33-38.
[16] NRSV, NASB. Matthew 27:24. CR Matthew 27:24-26; Mark 15:11-15; Luke 23:20-25; John 19:4-15. Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVI. Chapters II, VI; Book XVII, Chapter XIII; Book XIX, Chapter V-VI. Josephus, Flavius. Against Apion. Book II. The Complete Works of Josephus. 1850. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false