King Herod’s Death Date

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

History

Nativity accounts of both Matthew and Luke report that Jesus of Nazareth was born during the lifetimes of three historical personages – Augustus, Herod and Quirinius.^[1] King Herod’s death occurred shortly after the birth of Jesus of Nazareth making it the lynch pin date to determine his birth year, but it isn’t easy to determine.

Standardized calendars during Antiquity do not exist; instead, timelines and dates are linked to well-known historical events. Establishing the date of Herod’s death requires piecing together such clues as the reigns of Tiberius, King Herod and his sons; the Battle of Actium; the Jewish religious calendar; astronomy data, Josephus’ history accounts, etc.

Adding another level of complexity is “inclusive reckoning,” the question of whether a partial year was counted as a full year in historical references. The unsettled question instills a plus or minus factor of at least a year.^[2]

Josephus wrote extensively in Antiquities of the Jews about the days surrounding Herod’s death. They are marked by bookend events of a lunar eclipse and the following Passover that Spring.

Calculations

Philip, one of King Herod’s sons, began reigning part of Judea after the death of his father when he was appointed by Caesar Augustus as tetrarch. Printed copies of Antiquities say Philip died in the “twentieth year of Tiberius,” after ruling for 37 years.^[3]

“…Philip, Herod’s brother, departed this life, in the twentieth year of the reign of Tiberius after he had been tetrarch of Trachonitis, and Gaulonitis, and of the nation of Bataneana also thirty-seven years.” – Josephus (*printed)^[4]

Tiberius began his reign when Caesar Augustus died in 14 AD, then adding 20 years it lands in 34 AD, minus Philip’s reign of 37 years calculates to 3 BC when King Herod died. With the partial lunar eclipse on March 13^th, 4 BC, that year becomes the commonly accepted secular date for Herod’s death meaning Jesus of Nazareth had to be born in an earlier year.^[5]

Secular history ends the reign of Tiberius in March, 37 AD, after almost 22 and half years when he began his reign in August, 14 AD. After factoring in the 37-year reign of Philip, he could not have began his reign in 4 BC.

Consultant and Biblical hobbyist, David Beyer, compared the 1544 Gutenberg printings of Antiquities to two dozen older, handwritten manuscripts predating Gutenberg. He discovered all older handwritten Antiquities manuscripts said that Philip died in the 22^nd year of Tiberius, not the 20^th year, and when corrected to 22 years places Herod’s death in the 1 BC time frame.^[6]

Josephus’ two other references in Antiquities of the Jews and Wars of the Jews each back-up Beyer. In Antiquities, Josephus states that Tiberius died after serving as Caesar “twenty-two years, five months and three days” aligning with the secular history date of early 37 AD this placing Herod’s death in the 1 BC.^[7]

Wars marked the Battle of Actium in the 7^th year of Herod’s reign academically recognized as occurring in the year 31 BC. Josephus wrote that Herod served for 37 years backdating the beginning of Herod’s reign to 38 BC who then reigned himself for 37 years thereby again reckoning Herod’s death in the year 1 BC.

Agrippa, in 36 AD, traveled to Rome before the death of Tiberius. After saying to Caligula (Caius/Gaius) in a carriage ride that he wished Tiberius would die. The carriage driver told Tiberius who had Agrippa thrown into prison.

Six months later after the death of Tiberius, his successor, Caligula, gave the unfilled tetrarchy of Philip to Agrippa in 37 AD. Once again, factoring in the reign of Tiberius and backdating Philip’s death after reigning for 37 years, reckons to Herod’s death in 1 BC.^[8]

Three historical references by Josephus are calculated three different ways. All land in the year 1 BC.

Historian expert Gerard Gertoux, using several calculations methods, arrived at similar results. Approaching the dilemma from several angles, Gertoux determined the King’s death occurred in 1 BC.^[9]

Astronomy

Changing the date of Herod’s death to 1 BC poses a second question – what about the lunar eclipse referenced by Josephus marking the final days of King Herod?

NASA lunar eclipse data for Jerusalem reveals that on January 9-10, 1 BC, a full lunar eclipse occurred. Passover that year was observed on April 6^th, twelve and half weeks later allowing eight additional weeks for the events described by Josephus to occur.^[10]

By comparison, NASA data for Jerusalem shows only a partial, less-than-half, lunar eclipse occurred on March 13^th, 4 BC, used to support the secular 4 BC timeline.^[11] Passover in 4 BC fell on April 10^th, four weeks later.^[12]

Span of Eclipse to Passover Events

Aside from various dating methods, some experts question the timeline between the eclipse and Passover. Could all the events described by Josephus have occurred in the span of just 4 weeks if Herod died in 4 BC?

Josephus described in detail the events that took place between the eclipse and the upcoming Passover.^[13] A gripping scene in Jerusalem began with rumors that Herod had died inciting insurrectionists to remove the long-hated sacrilege of Rome’s golden eagle insignia Herod had mounted over the entrance gate.^[14]

Unfortunately for the insurrectionists, the King was not yet dead. Herod had the High Priest removed from office and 40 insurrectionists burned alive marked by a lunar eclipse that night.

Herod’s loathsome protruding bowels and gangrenous groin condition worsened. Physicians recommended therapy in the warm baths of Callirrhoe, about a 2-days journey from Jerusalem past another of Herod’s palace in Jericho, then across the Jordan River to the hot springs.^[15]

Gaining no relief, his physicians then recommended soaking in a full vat of oil. Back to his closer palace in Jericho, King Herod soaked in a vat for three days, but that treatment also failed.

Preparing for the final chapter in his life, the King sent letters throughout Judea summoning all the “principal men” to Jericho:

“all the principal men of the entire Jewish nation, wheresoever they lived, should be called to him…a great number that came, because the whole nation was called, and all men heard of this call, and death was the penalty of such as should despise the epistles.” – Josephus ^[16]

Death would bring welcome relief. Misery overcame the King who decided to hasten his inevitable death with a kitchen carving knife, but his cousin saw what was about to happen, grabbed the King’s hand and began screaming.^[17]

Echoing screams throughout the halls of the palace were misinterpreted that Herod had died touching off a great wailing lamentation. Antipater, Herod’s imprisoned eldest son, believed a twist of fate had now posited the kingdom into his grasp.

Antipater promised his jailer fortunes to release him immediately. Instead, the jailer informed Herod who became enraged, beat his head and ordered his son to be promptly executed.^[18]

Herod died 5 days later, after Antipater’s execution, according to Josephus.^[19] News of the King’s death spread across Judea and to other nations.

International dignitaries and top military personnel including centurions, captains and officers; and full regiments of the Thracians, Germans, Galatians and Gauls all outfitted in full battle gear traveled to the King’s funeral in Jericho. Meanwhile, a funeral bier was built of gold embroidered by “very precious stones of a great variety” and lined with purple material “of various contexture.”

After the funeral, an elaborate and slow procession to Herodium for the King’s interment took many more days. Following the King’s burial was a 7-day morning period, then a feast was given for the people of Judea before the Passover.^[20]

Question

Historical records, archeological discoveries and astronomy data point to the death of Herod in the 1 BC time frame vs. the questionable secular 4 BC date. Did Herod’s death actually occur in 1 BC or the traditionally accepted year of 4 BC?

Updated October 28, 2024.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1] Matthew 2. Luke 2.
[2] Gertoux. “Dating the Death of Herod.” pp 3-4. Maier, Paul L. The New Complete Works of Josephus. Trans. William Whiston. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications. 1999. Dissertation 5, Appendix #38. Google Books. n.d. <http://books.google.com/books?id=kyaoIb6k2ccC&lpg=PP1&dq=the%20complete%20works%20of%20josephus&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false > Ramsay. Was Christ Born in Bethlehem? Chapter 11 & end note. Jachowski, Raymond. Academa.Edu. “The Death of Herod the Great and the Latin Josephus: Re-Examining the Twenty-Second Year of Tiberius.” n.d. <https://www.academia.edu/19833193/The_Death_of_Herod_the_Great_and_the_Latin_Josephus_Re_Examining_the_Twenty_Second_Year_of_Tiberius>
[3] Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. Book XVII, Chapter XII; Book XVIII, Chapters V. Bunson, Matthew. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Galilee; Judaea.” 2002. <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624> Jachowski. Academa.Edu. “The Death of Herod the Great and the Latin Josephus: Re-Examining the Twenty-Second Year of Tiberius.” Philip. Bible Wiki. image. n.d. <https://bible.fandom.com/wiki/Philip_the_Tetrarch>
[4] Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. Book XVIII, Chapters IV.6. (printed copy)
[5] Whiston. The Works of Flavius Josephus, the Learned and Authentic Jewish Historian.” 1850. p 349 footnote. <https://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&hl=en#v=snippet&q=349&f=false> Bernegger, P.M. “Affirmation of Herod’s Death in 4 B.C.” Journal of Theological Studies. 1983. Vol. 34, no 2, pp 526-531, <http://www.redatedkings.com/postings/Bernegger.pdf> Schurer, Emil. A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ. 1890. Volume 1, pp 464-465, footnote 165. <http://books.google.com/books?id=BRynO3W9FPcC&pg=PP1#v=snippet&q=Tiberius&f=false> Doig, Kenneth F. New Testament Chronology. 1990. Chapter 4. <http://nowoezone.com/NT_Chronology.htm
[6] Beyer. “Josephus Reexamined.” pp 86-87, 90-93, 95-96. Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter II. 2. Josephus. Wars. Book II, Chapter IX.1, 6. Wolfram, Chuck. “The Herodian Dynasty.” 2004. <http://web.archive.org/web/20151013221102/http://freepages.history.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~cwolfram/herod Martin, Ernest L. The Star of Bethlehem – The Star That Astonished the World. 2^nd Ed. 2003. Chapter 13. A.S.K. (Associates for Scriptural Knowledge. <://web.archive.org/web/20170917115234/http://www.askelm.com/star/star015.htm> Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter VI.6-8, 10. Jachowski. Academa.Edu. “The Death of Herod the Great and the Latin Josephus: Re-Examining the Twenty-Second Year of Tiberius.”
[7] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter II. 2; Chapter VI.5. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXIII.8. “Tiberius.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2023. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tiberius> “Tiberius.” World History Encyclopedia. 2023. <https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiberius/> Steinmann, Andrew E.; Young, Rodger. Academia.Edu. “Elapsed Times for Herod the Great in Josephus.” 2023. <https://www.academia.edu/39731184/Elapsed_Times_for_Herod_the_Great_in_Josephus?email_work_card=thumbnail>
[8] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter VI.10. Josephus. Wars. Book II, Chapter IX.6. “Augustus.” UNRV History |The Roman Empire. United Nations of Roma Victrix. 2017. <http://www.unrv.com/fall-republic/augustus.php> “Did Caesar and Cleopatra really have a son?” The Ancient Standard. 2010. <http://ancientstandard.com/2010/12/03/did-caesar-and-cleopatra-really-have-a-son
[9] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XV, Chapter V, Book XVII, Chapters VI – Chapter VIII. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXIII. “Actium (31 BCE).” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2019. <https://www.livius.org/articles/battle/actium-31-bce> “King Herod the Great.” Livius.org. 2017. <http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodians/herod_the_great01.html> “The Actium Project.” New World Encyclopedia. The University of South Florida and the Greek Ministry of Culture. Dir. William M. Murray. Research Project. 1997. <http://luna.cas.usf.edu/~murray/actium/brochure.html> Chesser, Preston. “The Battle of Actium.” Ohio State University. 2002. <http://ehistory.osu.edu/articles/battle-actium> Gertoux. “Dating the Death of Herod.” pp 6, 9, 11. “HEROD I. (surnamed the Great).” Gertoux, Gerard. “Herod the Great and Jesus: Chronological, Historical and Archaeological Evidence.” Academia.edu. n.d. <https://www.academia.edu/2518046/Herod_the_Great_and_Jesus_Chronological_Historical_and_Archaeological_Evidence?email_work_card=view-paper> Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7598-herod-i> Villalba i Varneda, Pere. The Historical Method of Flavius Josephus. 1986. p14. <http://books.google.com/books?id=kdUUAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA14&ots=2ek7SgCy2c&dq=josephus%2C%20battle%20of%20actium%2C%20herod&pg=PA14#v=onepage&q=josephus,%20battle%20of%20actium,%20herod&f=false> Bernegger. “Affirmation of Herod’s Death in 4 B.C.” San José, Juan Antonio Revilla. “On the Year of Herod’s Death.” Pages 14, 140. “World History 50-0 BC.” HistoryCentral.com. MultiEducator, Inc. n.d. <http://www.historycentral.com/dates/50bc.html>
[10] Espenak, Fred. NASA Lunar Eclipse Website. 2007. Asia and Asia Minor – Jerusalem, Israel; Century Selection -0001 – 0100. <https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/JLEX/JLEX-AS.html> Espenak. NASA Eclipse Website. Asia and Asia Minor – Jerusalem, Israel. Century Selection -0001 – 0100. Espenak, Fred. “Six Millennium Catalog of Phases of the Moon.” NASA Eclipse Website. n.d. “Phase years Table: -0099 – 0000.” <https://archive.is/UsEwe> Kidger, Mark R. “The Date of Passover 11BC – 10AD.” <http://www.observadores-cometas.com/cometas/Star/Passover.html> Reinhold. “Other Scholarship Proving the Exact Date of Birth of Yeshua (Jesus), pt 5.”
[11] Espenak. NASA Eclipse Website. Asia and Asia Minor – Jerusalem, Israel. Century Selection -0001 – 0100.
[12] Martin. The Star of Bethlehem. Chapter 13. Bernegger. “Affirmation of Herod’s Death in 4 B.C.”
[13] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter VI, VII. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXIII.
[14] Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. Book VII, Chapters VI – IX. The Complete Works of Josephus. 1850. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false> Josephus, Flavius. Wars of the Jews. Chapter XXXIII; Book II, Chapter I. The Complete Works of Josephus. 1850. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
[15] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter VI. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXIII. “Tulul Abul Alayiq (Herodian Jericho) – Jericho.” This Week in Palestine. Issue No. 102, October 2006. <http://www.thisweekinpalestine.com/details.php?id=1948&ed=132&edid=132> “Callirrhoe.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3933-callirrhoe> “Map of New Testament Israel.” Bible-history.com. Map. n.d. <http://www.bible-history.com/geography/ancient-israel/israel-first-century.html>
[16] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter VI.5. CR Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXIII.
[17] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter VII. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXIII.
[18] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter VII. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXIII.
[19] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter VI-VII. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXIII.
[20] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapters VII-VIII. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXIII; Book II, Chapter I. Whiston. The Works of Flavius Josephus, the Learned and Authentic Jewish Historian.” 1850. p 450, footnote. <https://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&hl=en#v=snippet&q=349&f=false >; “Highways and Roads of Palestine.” 2017. Map. Bible-history.com. <http://www.bible-history.com/geography/ancient-israel/israel-first-century.html > San José, Juan Antonio Revilla. “On the Year of Herod’s Death.” A partial translation from “La Fecha de Muerte de Herodes y La Estrella de Belén.” 1999. Astrology of the New Centaurs. <;href=”http://www.expreso.co.cr/centaurs/steiner/herod.html”> Smallwood, E. Mary. The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian. 2^nd Ed. 1981. p 104, footnote 158. <http://books.google.com/books?id=jSYbpitEjggC&lpg=PA151&ots=VWqUOinty4&dq=census%20Syria%20Rome&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false>; Reinhold, Roy A. “Other Scholarship Proving the Exact Date of Birth of Yeshua (Jesus), part 5.” Codes in the Bible. 2001. <http://www.ad2004.com/Biblecodes/articles/yeshuabirth5.html “Jesus of Nazareth.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8616-jesus-of-nazareth> Beyer, David W. “Josephus Reexamined: Unraveling the Twenty-Second Year of Tiberius.” 1998. p 88. Chronos, Kairos, Christos II. Ed. Jerry Vardaman. <http://books.google.com/books?id=mWnYvI5RdLMC&lpg=PP1&dq=isbn%3A0865545820&pg=PA85#v=snippet&q=beyer&f=false> Gertoux, Gerard. “Dating the death of Herod.” 2015 Academia.edu. <http://www.academia.edu/2518046/Dating_the_death_of_Herod /a>

Herod – Profile of a Cruel & Cunning King

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

Herod – Profile of a Cruel & Cunning King

Infamous as King of Judea in Matthew’s Nativity story, Herod was a threat to the lives of the Magi, Mary, Joseph and baby Jesus. It can be hard to believe the King of Judea would kill all the baby boys aged 2 years and younger just to ensure he eliminated just one baby.

^{MT 2:16} Then when Herod saw that he had been tricked by the magi, he became very enraged, and sent and slew all the male children who were in Bethlehem and all its vicinity, from two years old and under, according to the time which he had determined from the magi.” _(NKJV)

King Herod’s profile is truly that of such a villain. One clue might be that Herod was not himself a Jew – his father was Idumean and his mother Arabian.^[1]

Jewish historian Josephus noted people quickly saw Herod’s harsh personality:

“…they saw that he was a violent and bold man, and very desirous of acting tyrannically.” – Flavius Josephus ^[2]

Killing many people, even though a king, was in violation of Jewish law compelling the Sanhedrin put Herod on trial for murder. High Priest Hyrcanus tipped off the defiant Herod of the pending verdict allowing him to temporarily escape to Damascus.^[3]

Aligning himself with Roman rulers, he was appointed as a military general “for he sold him that post for money.” Marc Antony “by money” named Herod as Tetrarch and such persuasions also helped avert a dangerous dalliance with Queen Cleopatra.^[4]

With more financial influences, Antony presented Herod to the Roman Senate which voted to make him King of Judea in 40 BC. Authority in Judea had to be taken by force over the course of 3 years with assistance by Antony and Roman Legions.^[5]

Antony’s defeat by Octavius (aka Augustus) caused Herod to believe his days were numbered. With nothing to lose, he boldly presented himself to Caesar Augustus in Rome.

Acknowledging his loyal friendship to Antony, Herod positioned loyalty as a quality that would likewise be valuable to Caesar if he was allowed to pledge his allegiance. The ploy worked and established a lasting relationship with Augustus for the remainder of Herod’s life.^[6]

Allowed more power by Rome than any other king in the provinces, the King was positioned to acquire great wealth and fame. Revenue was acquired through heavy taxes, from booty of war and at least some illicitly.

Josephus wrote that under cover of night, Herod robbed King David’s sepulcher of gold furniture and precious goods. (Previously, Hycranus had already robbed the money from the tomb.)^[7]

Enhancing the Jewish Temple, Herod is famed for building it back to the grandeur of Solomon. New cities were constructed by Herod including Caesarea with a temple dedicated to Caesar and the city of Herodium was built in honor of himself.^[8]

Exacerbating his offensive actions, Herod inserted Greek inscriptions and architectural features in the enhanced Temple. One such sacrilege was placing Rome’s golden eagle insignia over the Temple gate leading to a future atrocity when Herod had 40 insurrectionists burned alive and marked his final days.^[9]

Trusting no one, Herod was ruthless in quelling any possible threats.^[10]A favored interrogation method was torture on “the rack” with only family members being exempt.

Some of those who met a fate on the rack were identified by Josephus. Victims of torture included palace eunuchs, body guards, maids, friends of family members, soldiers, and anyone else possibly holding secrets.^[11]

Murders by Herod were standard fare. Family status offered no safe harbor from execution.

Constantly in turmoil, family members of the palace consisted of 10 wives and children. Bearing hatred for one another, it produced rivalries, slanders, lies, backstabbing, and murder conspiracies.^[12]

Second wife of Herod was Mariamne whose 17-year old brother was killed by the King simply because he wanted someone else to be high priest. Former high priest, Hyrcanus, Mariamne’s father and old heir to the throne, was killed by Herod.

Mariamne’s two sons were heirs to the throne. Charged with a murder plot to kill the King, his sons were placed on trial in absentia, convicted and executed by strangulation.

Rebuking Herod, his sister Salome and mother for complicity in these executions led to Mariamne’s own execution.^[13] Days before Herod died, he executed his son from his first wife, Antipater.^[14]

According to Matthew, Herod’s profile of a cruel and cunning King was true to his reputation. Enraged, Herod believed he had been deceived by the Magi who returned home by a different route while Joseph and Mary with baby Jesus escaped Judea to Egypt.

Unusual for rulers of the era, Herod died a natural death, albeit a most miserable one. Disabled by a terrible groin condition, gangrenous bowels protruded out of his body compelling him to attempt a failed suicide.

Knowing death was imminent and feeling sorry for himself, according to Josephus, the King devised the most dastardly plan of his reign.^[15] Surmising the principal men of Judea would all rejoice at his death rather than mourn, the King made a demented plan to murder them.

To deprive them of such mockery, under threat of death Herod summoned all the principal men throughout Judea to travel to his palace in Jericho. He then had them locked inside the hippodrome.^[15]

Before his death announcement was made public, the soldiers were to kill these principal men for the purpose of placing all of Judea in a state of mourning. Further, to ensure a deep national mourning, one member of each family in Judea was also to be killed.^[16]

Salome, Herod’s reputedly wicked sister, was to carry out his last wishes, but such depravity was even too much for her. Aborting the plan after the death of the king, she informed the soldiers the King had changed his mind at the last moment and they released the principal men.^[17]

Does the historical profile of a cruel Herod strengthen or diminish the credibility of Matthew Nativity account of killing all male boys 2 years and younger in the Bethlehem area just to ensure he killed baby Jesus?

Updated December 10, 2023.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1] Herod the Great.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2017. <http://www.livius.org/articles/person/herod-the-great/?> “Edom (ē`dŏm), Idumaea, or Idumea.” The Free Dictionary. 2017. <http://www.bible-history.com/herod_the_great> Bunson, Matthew. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Idumaea.” 2002. <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624> Herod the Great.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2017. <http://www.livius.org/articles/person/herod-the-great/?> “Edom (ē`dŏm), Idumaea, or Idumea.” The Free Dictionary. 2017. <http://www.bible-history.com/herod_the_great> Bunson, Matthew. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Idumaea.” 2002. <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624> “Herod the Great Biography.” TheFamousPeople. photo. n.d. <https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/herod-the-great-37596.php>
[2] Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. Book XIV, Ch. IX. William Whitson. The Complete Works of Josephus. 1850. Google Books. n.d <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false> Josephus, Flavius. Wars of the Jews. Book I, Chapter X. William Whitson. The Complete Works of Josephus. 1850. Google Books. n.d. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false> “Herod.” Jewish Virtual Library. 2017. <http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/herod> “Herod the Great – Governor of Galilee (47-37 B.C.).” <https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Idumean> Bunson, Matthew. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Judaea.” 2002. <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624>
[3] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XIV, Ch. IX; Book XV, Chapter II. Josephus. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter X. “Herod the Great.” Bible History Online. 2016.
[4] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XIV, Chapters IV, V, IX, XI. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter X.
[5] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XIV, Chapter. XVI, XII-XIV. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapters IV, XV – XVII. “Herod I.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7598-herod-i>
[6] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XV, Chapters VI-VII. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XIX-XX. Bunson, Matthew. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Herod the Great.” 2002. <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624&gt > Bunson, Matthew. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Jerusalem.” 2002. <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624>
[7] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVI, Chapter VII. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapters XXI, XXV, XXIV. “Herod the Great.” Bible History Online. 2016. <http://www.bible-history.com/herod_the_great> “Herod the Great.” Livius.org.
[8] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XV, Chapter XI. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXI. “Herod the Great.” Bible History Online. 2016. <http://www.bible-history.com/herod_the_great> Edersheim, Alfred. The Temple – Its Ministry and Services. 1826-1889. Chapter 1. <http://philologos.org/__eb-ttms/default.htm> Hegg, Tim. “Separating the Most Holy from the Holy: The ‘Veil’ in the Tabernacle and First & Second Temples” Torah Resource. <http://www.torahresource.com/EnglishArticles/Veil%20ETS%20Paper.pdf> “Temple of Jerusalem.” New World Encyclopedia. 2015. <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Temple_of_Jerusalem> “Herod’s Temple.” Bible-history.com. n.d. <http://www.bible-history.com/herod_the_great/HERODHerods_Temple.htm> “Herod.” Jewish Virtual Library.
[9] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XV, Chapter VIII; Book XVI, Chapter V; Book XVII, Chapters VI; VIII. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXI. “Hellenism” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7535-hellenism> “Asia Minor.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2010-asia-minor>
[10] Josephus. Antiquities. Book V, Chapter 1; Book XVI, Ch. VII. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXVI.
[11] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVI, Chapters VIII, X; Book XVII, Chapter IV. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXX.
[12] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter I. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XII. XXII. “Herod the Great; Herodias.” Livius.org.
[13] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XV, Chapters III-VII, IX, XIII, XVI. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXII. Bunson. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Herod the Great.”
[14] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVI, Chapter XI; Book XVII, Chapter IX. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXVII. XXXIII. Bunson. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Herod the Great.”
[15] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter VI.
[16] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter VI. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXIII.
[17] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter VII. Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXIII.