Astronomy Tales: Birth & Crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

Astronomy Tales: Birth & Crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth

“Follow the science” is a mantra often heard today from various sources. The same concept can be applied to the birth and crucifixion dates of the Jesus of Nazareth – the science is astronomy.

No mystical meaning is found in astronomy.^[1] Positions of stars and planets follow a predictive path that can be charted past, present and future.

Planets move in a rotation path around the Sun whereas stars are stationary. Both can appear in different places in the sky based on such variables as nightly diurnal motions, planetary rotations, seasons and earthly viewing location.

God Himself pointed out the absoluteness of astronomy when He promised the Messiah would sit on the throne of David:

^{Jer. 33:20-21} “Thus says the LORD: If any of you could break my covenant with the day and my covenant with the night, so that day and night would not come at their appointed time, only then could my covenant with my servant David be broken, so that he would not have a son to reign on his throne…” _(NRSV)

Going back millennia, many have attempted to interpret the meaning of the various cosmic alignments – Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans and even Jews. Various cultures have given names to planet-stars and fixed stars; assigned them to zodiacs; and even going so far as to worship them as gods.^[2]

Some have viewed interactions of the heavenly bodies and alignments as signs with earthly significance indicating something is about to happen or has occurred.^[3] Persian Zoroastrian teachings of the Magi espoused that every planet has a significance.^[4]

Astrology is different from astronomy where astrology is the belief that celestial bodies influence a person’s journey in life, but it is not a “science.”^[5] Horoscopes, for example, are an attempt to define a personality, successes, sorrows, challenges – a life’s destiny.

BIRTH OF JESUS OF NAZARETH

Magi in Matthew’s account were not motivated by an ancient prophecy or a prophet, an angelic appearance, or any type of divine revelation. Instead, their actions were compelled by an awe-inspiring scene they observed in the night sky.

Evidenced by their actions, the Magi confidently believed in the sign when they saw “his star” compelling them to do several things well-beyond normal. They set out on a risky months-long journey around the great Arabian Desert to a foreign land in Judea not knowing where their quest would end; sought input from a ruthless Judean king, eventually even defying him; brought expensive gifts for this unknown baby; and they planned to worship him.^[6]

NASA’s astronomy data can be used to recreate cosmic events visible to the Magi that may have signaled the birth of the “king of the Jews.” Closing out the last 7 years of the BC era, two sets of stellar events occurred during the years 7-5 BC and 3-1 BC. Rare conjunctions, movements and alignments typically occurring centuries apart, transpired in a very short period of time.

Matthew reported the death of King Herod ending the Nativity account. One common fact to Matthew and Luke: King Herod was alive when Jesus was born with secular history focusing primary on the death date of Herod.^[7]

Many have used the 7-5 BC timeline with a partial lunar eclipse to support the secular year of Herod’s death in 4 BC. Historian Josephus described in detail events surrounding Herod’s death between a lunar eclipse and the Passover leading to research that points to the King’s death in 1 BC when a full lunar eclipse occurred.

A four-prong approach overlaying secular history accounts, Jewish calendars, the science of astronomy data and Gospel accounts produces two fascinating scenarios for the birth of Jesus and the death of Herod. If the Magi acted on either scenario, which one makes the most logical sense?

CRUCIFIXION OF JESUS OF NAZARETH

Astronomy data can be used as a basis for determining the crucifixion date Jesus of Nazareth, especially when compared with historical accounts and the Gospels. Three sets of information – astronomy data, history, Gospels – are defined separately below and then triangulated together to form one likely possibility.

Astronomy

NASA astronomy data serves as an accurate method to determine the Passover dates as an alternative to unreliable calendars of antiquity. (Calendar conversions to antiquity are unreliable due to variations of Julian, Gregorian and Jewish calendars.)^[8]

Each year for hundreds of years, Jewish Nissan 15^th, Passover, always occurs on the first full moon after the vernal equinox that today is typically believed to be March 21^st, although that date varies scientifically by as much as two days based on Naval Observatory and NASA data.^[9] Full moon dates within these scientific parameters for the years 28-33 AD are:^[10]

28 AD: March 29 (Monday)    31 AD: March 27 (Tuesday)
29 AD: April 17 (Sunday)    32 AD: April 14 (Monday)
30 AD: April 6 (Thursday)      33 AD: April 3 (Friday)

Often cited for the crucifixion scenario is a solar eclipse to explain the reference in Luke to darkness from noon until three o’clock.^[11] NASA astronomy defines when a solar and a lunar eclipse can occur:

“An eclipse of the Sun can occur only at New Moon, while an eclipse of the Moon can occur only at Full Moon” – NASA astronomy ^[12]

NASA data shows solar eclipses occurred over Jerusalem during the Passover periods of either 29 or 33 AD^[13] Consequently, the darkening of the Sun cannot be explained by a lunar eclipse because no lunar eclipse is visible during daylight hours even if one occurred that night.^[14]

History – Roman and Jewish:

“At the death of Herod, Augustus Caesar divided his territories among his sons — Archelaüs, Philip, and Herodes Antipas…” making them Tetrarchs.^[15] Josephus stated Philip ruled for 37 years meaning he either died in 33 or 36 AD.^[16]

Tiberius Caesar began his rule as Roman Emperor on August 19, 14 AD, upon the death of Augustus Caesar. Tiberius ruled until his own death on March 16, 37 AD, when Caligula (Caius) became Emperor.^[17]

During his reign, Tiberius appointed only two procurators to Judea, first was Valerius Gratus for the years 15-25 AD. Pontius Pilate was procurator of Judea for 10 years from 26-36 AD.^[18] Vitellius sent Pilate to Rome in 36 AD to answer to Tiberius for killing Samaritans; however, the Emperor died while Pilate was en-route to Rome.^[19]

Ananus was first High Priest of his family, followed by five of his sons and a son-in-law named Caiaphas.^[20] Beginning his 10-year tenure in 26 AD, Caiaphas was the high priest until he was removed by Vitellius during a Passover in 36 AD, the same year he removed Pilate as Procurator.^[21]

Tetrarch Antipas met Herodias who accompanied her husband, Tetrarch Philip, during a trip to Rome. The two devised a plan to divorce their current spouses and remarry each other setting in motion a chain reaction of historical events – the execution of John the Baptist; an Arab-Jewish war; and Caesar wanting the demise of an Arab King.^[22]

Herodias and Antipas married in 33 AD according to the Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities.^[23] Antipas’ first wife was the daughter of Arab King Aretas who, unbeknownst to Antipas, found out about scheme divorce scheme with Herodias and made arrangements to return to her father.

John the Baptist, renowned by both Judaism and Islam in addition to Christianity, publicly criticized the illicit, incestuous marital arrangement which infuriated Herodias.^[24] From the perspective of Josephus, Antipas executed John the Baptist for political reasons.^[25]

Aretas and Antipas were agitated to war, according to Josephus, “when all of Herod’s army was destroyed by the treachery of some fugitives, who, though they were of the tetrarchy of Philip, joined with Aretas’s army.”^[27] Based on this statement, Philip was alive and secular Historians date the Aretas-Antipas war to 36 AD.

Antipas wrote to Tiberius about his defeat to Aretas which angered Caesar who ordered his Roman Syrian legate, Vitellius, to capture Aretas or “kill him and, and send him his head.”^[28] Tiberius soon died thereafter in 37 AD whereupon Vitellius sent his military home because Tiberius’ order was no longer valid.^[29]

Philip’s tetrarchy became available when he died and Roman Emperor Caligula gave the tetrachy governance position to Agrippa in 37 AD.^[30]

Gospels:

^{Luke 3:1} “In the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, when Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea, and Herod was tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip was tetrarch of the region of Iturea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias was tetrarch of Abilene, during the high priesthood of Annas and Caiaphas, the word of God came to John the son of Zechariah in the wilderness.”_(NET)^[31]

John the Baptist and Jesus began their ministries about the same time. Unlike the three Gospel accounts of Matthew, Mark and Luke, the Gospel account of John is essentially written in chronological order.

After his baptism by John the Baptist in Bethany, the Gospel of John chronicled actions taken by Jesus of Nazareth. After being rejected in Nazareth, he moved to Capernaum; chose some of his Disciples in Galilee; attended a wedding in Cana; returned to Capernaum; then traveled to Jerusalem for the first Passover of his ministry.^[32]

Approaching the second Passover during his ministry, Jesus refers to John the Baptist in present tense terms although he spoke of his ministry in past tense strongly suggesting John is in prison: he “was the burning and shining lamp.”^[33] Herod Antipas had John the Baptist arrested, but not immediately executed, for publicly criticizing his illicit marital arrangement with Herodias which infuriated her.^[34]

Between the second and third Passovers attended by Jesus, people referred to John the Baptist in the past tense – he is no longer alive.^[35] As a reward for a dance performed by his step-daughter (daughter of Philip), identified as Salome by Josephus, Herod Antipas promised anything she wanted.^[36] After consulting with her mother, John the Baptist was beheaded at the behest of Herodias for criticism of her illicit, incestuous marital arrangement.^[37]

Triangulation:

John the Baptist began his ministry during the 15^th year of Tiberius’ reign. Adding 15 years to the beginning the rule of Tiberius in 14 AD equates to 29 AD.

Jesus of Nazareth did not begin his 3-year ministry until after he was baptized by John the Baptist when both were in the initial stages of their ministries that year. This alone eliminates the possibility for the crucifixion year of 29 AD.

Historical accounts from 33-37 AD combined with Biblical accounts support the death of John the Baptist in 32 or 33 AD… Jesus had not yet been executed. NASA data reveals only one full moon, a requirement for Passover, occurred on a Friday.

Sending troops in 36 AD to aide Aretas in a war against Antipas, Philip could not have died in 33 AD. This, in turn, means King Herod died during the 1 BC scenario for the birth of Jesus.

Caligula gave the tetrachy of Philip to Agrippa in 37 AD further supporting the scenarios for the death of Herod in 1 BC after a 37-year reign of Philip. It is highly unlikely the governorship of a tetrarchy would have been left unfilled for 3-4 years if Philip had died in 33 AD.

Jesus attended three Passovers in Jerusalem, the third and final Passover resulted in his capture, trial and crucifixion. Triangulating history and the Gospels with astronomy, all point to one date for the crucifixion of Jesus – April 3, 33 AD.

What are the odds that astronomy, secular history and the Gospels pointing to the crucifixion of Jesus in 33 AD are all wrong?

Updated November 25, 2024.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

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[7] Mathew 2:1-10; Luke 1:5. Jachowski, Raymond. Academa.Edu. “The Death of Herod the Great and the Latin Josephus: Re-Examining the Twenty-Second Year of Tiberius.” n.d. <https://www.academia.edu/19833193/The_Death_of_Herod_the_Great_and_the_Latin_Josephus_Re_Examining_the_Twenty_Second_Year_of_Tiberius> Steinmann, Andrew E.; Young, Rodger C. Academia.Edu. “Elapsed Times for Herod the Great in Josephus.” 2023. <https://www.academia.edu/39731184/Elapsed_Times_for_Herod_the_Great_in_Josephus?email_work_card=thumbnail>
[8] Beattie, M. J. Church of God Study Forum. “Hebrew Calendar.” n.d. <http://www.cgsf.org/dbeattie/calendar> Richards, E. G. “Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac.” 2021. <https://aa.usno.navy.mil/downloads/c15_usb_online.pdf> “Easter Sunday/Jewish Passover Calculator.” WebSpace Science. JavaScript calculator. n.d. <https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/easter/easter_text2a.htm> “Jewish holiday calendars & Hebrew date converter.” Hebcal. n.d. <https://www.hebcal.com/converter?hd=16&hm=Nisan&hy=3793&h2g=1> “Hebrew Calendar Converter.” Calculators. 2022. <https://calcuworld.com/calendar-calculators/hebrew-calendar-converter> April 33 AD. TimeandDate.com. calendar. <https://www.messianic-torah-truth-seeker.org/AD-33-3793/PDF-AD-33-3793.pdf>
[9] Leviticus 23:4-7; Numbers 28:16-25. Richards. “Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac.” “The Scientific Method by Science Made Simple.” Moss, Aron. “Why Is Passover on a Full Moon?” Chabad.org. <https://www.chabad.org/holidays/passover/pesach_cdo/aid/4250850/jewish/Why-Is-Passover-on-a-Full-Moon.htm> Bikos, Konstantin. “The Jewish Calendar.” TimeAndDate.com. n.d. <https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/jewish-calendar.html> Cohen, Michael M. “Passover, full moon and fulfillment.” The Jerusalem Post. 2019. <https://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Culture/Passover-The-full-moon-and-fulfillment-586511> “Determining the Dates for Easter and Passover.” RayFowler.org. n.d. <http://www.rayfowler.org/writings/articles/determining-the-dates-for-easter-and-passover> Beattie. “Hebrew Calendar.” Fairchild, Mary. Learn Religions. “What Is the Paschal Full Moon?. n.d. <https://www.learnreligions.com/paschal-full-moon-700617> “Lunar Eclipses from 0001 to 0100 Jerusalem, ISRAEL” National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Javascrip 2007. <https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/JLEX/JLEX-AS.html>
[10] Espenak, Fred. “Phases of the Moon: 0001 to 0100 Universal Time (UT).” Astropixels.com. n.d. <http://astropixels.com/ephemeris/phasescat/phases0001.html> “Spring Phenomena 25 BCE To 32 CE.” Astronomical Applications Department of the U.S. Naval Observatory. 13 December 2011. <http://web.archive.org/web/20180126214204/http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/SpringPhenom.php> “The Scientific Method by Science Made Simple.” ScienceMadeSimple.com. 2014. <http://web.archive.org/web/20211228113808/https://www.sciencemadesimple.com/scientific_method.html> Calendars for 28-33 AD. TimeandDate. 2022. <https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/custom.html?year=27&country=1&hol=0&cdt=31&holm=1&df=1>
[11] Matthew 27:45; Mark 15:33; Luke 23:44.
[12] “Phases of the Moon: 0001 to 0100 Universal Time (UT).” Astropixels.com.
[13] Espenak, Fred. National aeronautics and Space Administration. “Solar Eclipses of Historical Interest.” Java script. 2009. <https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhistory/SEhistory.html> Espenak, Fred. National aeronautics and Space .Administration. “Total Solar Eclipse of 0033 March 19.” Chart. 2009. <https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhistory/SEplot/SE0033Mar19T.pdf> “Phases of the Moon: 0001 to 0100 Universal Time (UT).” Astropixels.com.
[14] Espenak, Fred. NASA Eclipse Website. “Lunar Eclipses from -0099 to 0000 Jerusalem, Israel.” n.d <https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/JLEX/JLEX-AS.html>
[15] Peck, Harry Thurston. Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. “Iudaei.” 1898. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0062:entry=iudaei-harpers&highlight=antipas> CR Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. Trans. and commentary. William Whitson. The Complete Works of Josephus. Book XVII, Chapter XI.4; Book XVIII, Chapter II.1. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=fal > Josephus, Flavius. Wars of the Jews. Trans. and commentary. William Whitson. The Complete Works of Josephus. Book II, Chapter IX.1. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false>
[16] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter IV.6; Chapter V.1. Josephus. Wars. Book II, Chapter IX.1. Strabo. Geography. Hamilton, H.C., Ed. Book 16, Chapter 2, footnotes 125, 128. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0239:book=16:chapter=2&highlight=antipas>
[17] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter II. 2, Chapter VI. 10. Josephus. Wars of the Jews. Book II, Chapter IX.6. Grant, Michael. Encyclopædia Britannica. “Augustus.” 2022. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Augustus-Roman-emperor> Pohl, Frederik. Encyclopædia Britannica. “Tiberius.” 2022. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tiberius> “Tiberius.” Wasson, Donald L. World History Encyclopedia. 19 July 2012 <https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiberius>
[18] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter XIII. 2, 5; Book XVIII, Chapters II.2; VI.1-2, 5-7, 10. Josephus. Wars. Book II, Chapter 9.5. Tacitus. Annals. Books II, XV. Suetonius (C. Suetonius Tranquillus or C. Tranquillus Suetonius). Suetonius (C. Suetonius Tranquillus or C. Tranquillus Suetonius). The Lives of the Twelve Caesars. Tiberius, #50, 51, 52. <http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/home.html> “Valerius Gratus.” Encyclopedia.com. 2019. <https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/valerius-gratusdeg>
[19] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter IV.1-2.
[20] “High Priest.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2007. < https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7689-high-priest>
[21] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapters I1.2; IV.3; V.3; Book XIX, Chapter VI.2. “High Priest.” Jewish Encyclopedia. “Jewish Palestine at the time of Jesus.” Britannica Encyclopedia. 2022. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/Jewish-Palestine-at-the-time-of-Jesus#ref748553> “Pontius Pilate.” Biography. 2021. <https://www.biography.com/religious-figure/pontius-pilate> Pilate, Pontius.” Encyclopedia.com. 2022. <https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/philosophy-and-religion/biblical-proper-names-biographies/pontius-pilate> “Tiberius.” World History Encyclopedia. <https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiberius> <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/Jewish-Palestine-at-the-time-of-Jesus#ref748553> Smith, Mark. History News Network. “The Real Story of Pontius Pilate? It’s Complicated.” 2022. <https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/168311> Larson, Rick. The Star of Bethlehem. 2022. <https://bethlehemstar.com/the-day-of-the-cross/pilate-and-sejanus>
[22] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter IV.1-2.
[23] Peck, Harry Thurston. Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. 1898. #3. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0062:entry=herodes-harpers&highlight=antipas > CR Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter V.1.
[24] Quran 3:19:2-7, 6:85; 19:7. <https://bible-history.com/links/aretas-1067> Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter V.2, Chapter II.3, V; Chapter V.4. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Ed. William Smith. “Salo’me.” 1848. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0104:entry=salome-bio-4&highlight=tetrarch> A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. “Hero’des I. or Hero’d the Great or Hero’des Magnus.” <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0104:entry=herodes-i-bio-1&highlight=tetrarch> CR Matthew 14:5; Mark 6:19-20; Luke 3:19-20. CR Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter V.4..
[25] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter V.2.
[27] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter V.1. “Herod Antipas.” Britannica Encyclopedia. 2022. <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herod-Antipas> “Aretas.” Bible History. 2022. <https://bible-history.com/links/aretas-1067> Gertoux, Gerard. “Dating the death of Herod.” Academia.edu. p 123. 2015. <http://www.academia.edu/2518046/Dating_the_death_of_Herod> Last accessed 28 Mar. 2023. “Herod Antipas.” Livius.org. n.d.<https://www.livius.org/articles/person/herod-antipas/> “Aretas ( in Aramaic ) IV.:” Jewish Encyclopedia. n.d. <https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1752-aretas>
[28] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter V.1.
[29] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter V.1-3.
[30] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter VI. 10.Strabo. Geography. Chapter V. n.d. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0239:book=12:chapter=5&highlight=tetrarch> “Tetrarcha.” A Dictionary of Green and Roman Antiquities. 1890. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:entry=tetrarcha-cn&highlight=tetrarch&gt
[31] CR Matthew 14:1, 3-4, 5, 6; Mark 6:14-20, 21; Luke 3:19; 4:16-30; 7:24-30; 8:3; 9:7, 9, 13.31; 23:7, 9, 11, 12, 15; John 1:28-34. CR Acts 4:27; 12:4, 6, 11, 19, 21, 23; 13;1; 23:8, 35. Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter John 1:28-34. XI.4; Book XVIII, Chapter V.1 Josephus. Wars of the Jews. Book II, Chapter IX.1; Book III, Chapter X.7.
[32] John 1:35-47; 2:1-13. CR Matthew 4:13; 13:53-58. Mark 6:1-4.
[33] John 5:35. CR Matthew 4:12; 11:2-7; John 5:32-33, 7:18-25.
[34] Matthew 14:5; Mark 6:19-20; Luke 3:19-20. CR Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapter V.4. “Hero’des I. or Hero’d the Great or Hero’des Magnus.”
[35] John 10:40-41; 11:54-12:18.
[36]A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.“Salo’me.”
[37] Matthew 14:3-10; Mark 6:17-27; Luke 3:19

Death of Jesus By Crucifixion?

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

Death of Jesus By Crucifixion?

One of the common charges by critics and skeptics against the Resurrection claim of the Gospels is that Jesus of Nazareth did not die by crucifixion, sometimes called the “swoon theory.”^[1] In fact, one of the world’s major religions teaches that Jesus never died on the cross, even if he was crucified!^[2]

An assertion that Jesus did not die by crucifixion defies historical accounts. Roman crucifixions were rife during the century before and after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 AD as documented by renowned authorities of antiquity such as Josephus, Tacitus, Suetonius, Cicero and Seneca the Younger.^[3]

Crucifixion by the Romans was fully intended to cause death under the most excruciatingly painful and humiliating circumstances. No escape. Victims could do nothing to save themselves after a group of military men had fastened the severely flogged victims, typically by nails, to wooden beams and suspended them above the ground.

Death confirmation today typically requires involvement by a coroner, law enforcement official, medical expert, etc. – still someone who can attest to these circumstances of the death. Required for a death certificate today, three facts are to be established – when and where the death occurred and the identity of the person who died.*^[4]

In the age of antiquity, confirmation of a death was basically the same; it required witnesses. No modern technologies and sciences were available meaning a death determination relied on observations and simple common sense – lifeless; not breathing; limp, cold and still; rigor mortis; obvious mortal wounds; decomposition or other morbid evidence.

All four Gospel accounts report that Jesus was killed by crucifixion, witnessed by many. Luke brought the intended outcome of the crucifixion to dramatic closure stating, “he breathed his last.”^[5]

At the top of the witness list is the Roman quaternion, the execution team consisting of four guards, and the exactor mortis who was a centurion.^[6] At the risk of dire consequences for failure to perform their duty, their job was to ensure death on the cross was successfully carried out – expert executioners.^[7] Mark’s quote of the centurion’s reaction at the moment of Jesus’ death is dramatic:

^{MK 15:39}“So when the centurion, who stood opposite Him, saw that He cried out like this and breathed His last, he said, “Truly this Man was the Son of God!”’”_(NKJV) ^[8]

An “excited utterance” by the centurion was his immediate gut reaction to his recognition that Jesus was dead and the significance of it. United States Federal Law defines an “excited utterance” as being made spontaneously under the influence of a startling event before the witness has had an opportunity for reflection.^[9] The excited utterance is considered to be a factual truthful statement and is, therefore, an exception to the legal hearsay rule.

Quaternion wanted to be sure Jesus was truly dead prompting a soldier to thrust a spear into his side. Bold inaction by the quaternion attests to their assessment that Jesus was dead when they decided not to break his legs to hasten death – they were already convinced Jesus was dead.^[10]

In the Gospel account of John, the author “testified” that he witnessed the death of Jesus on the cross. With special emphasis on why he is stating his observation, he calls out:

^{JN 19:35} “And he who has seen has testified, and his testimony is true; and he knows that he is telling the truth, so that you also may believe.” _{(NASB, NKJV)}

Seven women are identified in the Gospel accounts as being present at the crucifixion: Jesus’ own mother Mary and her sister, Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James and Joseph, mother of the sons of Zebedee, Mary the wife of Clopas, Salome and many other women from Galilee.^[12]

Luke identifies the foremost witness, the crucifixion victim himself – Jesus cried out announcing to God his “Father” the moment of his death: ^[13]

^{LK 23:46} “Then Jesus, crying with a loud voice, said, “Father, into your hands I commend my spirit.” Having said this, he breathed his last.” _(NRSV)

Witnessing the crucifixion of Jesus on Golgotha, a member of the Jewish Council , Joseph of Arimathea reached the same conclusion as the exactor mortis, the quaternion and John:^[14]

^{JN 19:38} “…Joseph of Arimathea, who was a disciple of Jesus, though a secret one because of his fear of the Jews, asked Pilate to let him take away the body of Jesus. Pilate gave him permission; so he came and removed his body.” _(NRSV)^[15]

Joseph approached Pilate with trepidation to ask for the body of Jesus.^[16] Surprised at Joseph’s request, Pilate wanted official confirmation of death from the centurion.^[17] The sequence of events suggests Pilate’s orders to break the legs of the men on the cross had only just been issued shortly before Joseph made his request.

Leaving the three crosses bearing their victims under the guard of the quaternion, the centurion left his post to provide the confirmation to Pilate that Jesus was truly dead:

^{Mk 15:44-45} “Pilate was surprised to hear that he was already dead. Summoning the centurion, he asked him if Jesus had already died. When he learned from the centurion that it was so, he gave the body to Joseph.” _(NIV)

As a government official of Rome, Pilate officially affirmed that Jesus was dead. Commanded by Pilate to hand over the body of Jesus to Joseph, the centurion’s job was not yet finished requiring him to return to the crucifixion site.

Along the way back to the crosses on Golgotha, Joseph was joined by Nicodemus, another rich man and member of the Jewish Council who also had kept a low profile as a secret follower of Jesus out of fear of the Sanhedrin.^[18] While Joseph of Arimathea approached Pilate, Nicodemus had gone separately to purchase 75 -100 pounds of burial spices.^[19]

Hanging lifeless on the cross, the centurion released the body of Jesus to the two members of the Jewish Council. Sunset was fast approaching and a quick burial preparation was needed before the Sabbath began.

^{MT 27:59-60} “And Joseph took the body and wrapped it in a clean linen cloth, and laid it in his own new tomb, which he had hewn out in the rock; and he rolled a large stone against the entrance of the tomb and went away.” _(NASB)^[20]

Up close and personal, Joseph and Nicodemus removed the body of Jesus from the cross, carried it to the nearby unused tomb of Joseph, wrapped it and applied at least 75 pounds of burial spices. Finished, they rolled a large stone in front the entrance of the tomb with the body of Jesus inside witnessed by two women each named Mary from Galilee.^[21]

Jewish leaders the next morning approached Pilate with concerns about the body of Jesus in the tomb.^[22]Fearing a fraudulent claim perpetrated by the Disciples, the Jewish leaders acknowledged Jesus had prophesied he would rise from the dead on the third day.

Pilate agreed to allow the tomb to be sealed and guarded by an armed koustodia. Intended or not, the chain of custody of the body of Jesus was in full effect.

Twelve witnesses are identified in the Gospel accounts as eyewitnesses to the death of Jesus – four Roman quaternion, the centurion, two members of the Jewish Council, two blood relatives of Jesus including his own mother, two mothers of Disciples, and one Disciple as well as Pilate’s legal affirmation.

Diversity of these witnesses, in addition to the strength in numbers , builds a level of unimpeachable evidence in today’s court of law. Noteworthy is that Judaism has always acknowledged the death of Jesus by crucifixion.

Did Jesus truly die by crucifixion?

* When a victim cannot be identified, the name John Doe or Jane Doe are often substituted.

Updated February 7, 2024.

REFERENCES:

[1] Goldman, Russell. “Jesus Christ May Not Have Died on Cross?” ABC News. 2010. <https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/jesus-christ-died-cross-scholar/story?id=11066130> Samuelsson, Gunnar. Crucifixion in Antiquity. 2011. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck. <https://www.academia.edu/4167205/Crucifixion_in_Early_Christianity> Bowen, Bradley. “Defending the Swoon Theory – Part 1: What is the Swoon Theory?” Patheos.com. 2019. <https://www.patheos.com/blogs/secularoutpost/2019/06/01/defending-the-swoon-theory-part-1-what-is-the-swoon-theory> “The Swoon Theories.” ReviewOfReligions.org. 2010. <https://www.reviewofreligions.org/2323/the-swoon-theories> Greenberg, Eric J. “Jesus’ Death Now Debated by Jews.” Jewish Journal. 9 Oct. 2003. Reprinted from The Jewish Week. <http://jewishjournal.com/news/world/8546>
[2] Assaqar, Monqith Ben Mahmoud. Central Intelligence Agency. “Was Jesus Crucified For Out Atonement?” n.d. p 6. <https://www.cia.gov/library/abbottabad-compound/CE/CE620DF8125A29EA4358631CA285D178_DID_JESUS_DIE_ON_THE_CROSS-.pdf> “Did Jesus die on Cross?” Islamic Circle of North America. 2016. <https://www.icna.org/did-jesus-die-on-cross> Quran Surah 4:157. Trans. Abdullah Yusuf Ali. n.d. <http://search-the-quran.com/search/Surah+An-Nisa/8>
[3] Josephus, Flavius. The Complete Works of Josephus. William Whitson. 1850. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false> Lucian of Samosata. “The Death of Peregrine.” The Works of Lucian of Samosata. Volume IV. p 82 <http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl420.htm> Cicero, Marcus Tullius. “Secondary Orations Against Verres. Book 5. 70 B.C. <https://web.archive.org/web/20160430183826/http://www.uah.edu/student_life/organizations/SAL/texts/latin/classical/cicero/inverrems5e.html> Tacitus, Gaius Cornelius. The Annals. Books X, XV 109 AD. <http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/annals.html> Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. “To Novatus on Anger+.” Moral Essays. “Seneca’s Essays Volume I.” Book III. The Stoic Legacy to the Renaissance. 2004. <http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_1.html#ANGER1> Seneca. “De Vita Beata+.” “To Gallio On The Happy Life.” Moral Essays. “Seneca’s Essays Volume II.” Book VII. The Stoic Legacy to the Renaissance. 2004. <http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_2.html#%E2%80%98BEATA1> Suetonius (C. Suetonius Tranquillus or C. Tranquillus Suetonius). The Lives of the Twelve Caesars. “Julius Caesar.” #74. <http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html> “Crucifixion.” JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2011. <http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4782-crucifixion>
[4] “Physicians’ Handbook on Medical Certification of Death.” 2003 Revision. p 9. Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics. <http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/misc/hb_cod.pdf> “Death Certificate Requirements.” Education Requirements. 2015. <https://web.archive.org/web/20181031044856/http://www.educationrequirements.org/death-certificate-requirements.html> “Certificate of Death.” Two Package Template. photo. n.d. <https://twopackage.com/12-death-certificate-templates-free-download>
[5] Luke 23:46. Most English translations use these exact words. CR Matthew 27:50; Mark 15:39.
[6] Zugibe, Frederick T. “Turin Lecture: Forensic and Clinical Knowledge of the Practice of Crucifixion.” E-Forensic Medicine. 2005. <http://web.archive.org/web/20130925103021/http://e-forensicmedicine.net/Turin2000.htm>
[7] Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Moral Essays. “Seneca’s Essays Volume I.” 1928-1935. Book III. “To Novatus on Anger+.” Book I, p xviii. 2. The Stoic Legacy to the Renaissance. <http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_1.html#ANGER1> Brand, Clarence Eugene. Roman Military Law. pp 80, 99-100, 103, 141-142. 2011. https://books.google.com/books?id=TWexDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91&lpg=PA91&dq=sacramentum+violation&source=bl&ots=cx2dAVJJkA&sig=ACfU3U0hRifTdhWkPhOVpdke7eZAyPEseQ&hl=en&ppis=_e&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjsi7Xz___nAhVDWK0KHeYHDLMQ6AEwBXoECAwQAQ#v=onepage&q=insubordination&f=false>
[8] CR Matthew 27:54, John 19:30.
[9] “Excited Utterance.” Cornell University Law School. <http://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/excited_utterance> “Federal Rules of Evidence Article VIII. Cornell University Law School. Rule 803. Exceptions to the Rule Against Hearsay.” <http://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/fre/rule_803>
[10] John 19:31-33.
[11] John 19:35.
[12] Mark 15:40-41. CR Luke 23:48-49. John 19:25. CR Matthew 4:21-22; Mark 1:19-20, 10:35; Luke 5:10.
[13] Luke 23:46. CR Matthew 27:50; Mark 15:37; John 19:30.
[14] Matthew 27:33; Mark 15:22; Luke 23:33.
[15] CR Mark 15:42-43.
[16] Matthew 27:58; Mark 15:43; Luke 23:50-52; John 19:38. CR Mathew 27:57; Mark 15:43; Luke 23:50; John 19:38.
[17] Mark 15:44.
[18] John 3:1; 7:45; 19:39. CR Mathew 27:57; Mark 15:43; Luke 23:50.
[19] John 19:39. See NetBible footnote #5 conversion of Roman pounds to U.S. measurement pounds. <http://classic.net.bible.org/verse.php?book=Joh&chapter=19&verse=39>
[20] CR John 19:42.
[21] Matthew 27:60-61. CR Luke 23:55.
[22] Matthew 27:62-65.

Is Passover an Appointed Time for the Crucifixion?

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

Is Passover an Appointed Time for the Crucifixion?

Crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth didn’t happen on just any day of the year…the timing is simply too hard to ignore. His execution was either a 1-in-365 happenstance incident or, perhaps, an appointed time of divine design.

Nisan 15^th – Jesus was crucified on the first day of the Jewish Passover. Merriam-Webster defines a sacrifice as “an act of offering to a deity something precious.”

Passover commenced at sunset, the beginning of a Jewish day, with the Feast of Unleavened Bread. The meal was intended to commemorate the time when the sacrifice of an innocent lamb had been required of God for salvation from the angel of death in Egypt.

A basic understanding of an appointed time helps to determine whether the timing of the crucifixion was merely a coincidence or more than that. Clues are found in the story of how the Hebrew Law came to be given by God at Mt. Sinai.

_ _ _ _ _

God’s booming voice coming from the burning bush at the base of Mt. Sinai instructed Moses to return to Egypt after a 40-year exile. Along with his brother Aaron, they were to confront the mighty Pharaoh of Egypt with a clear and succinct message:

^{Ex 5:1} …”Thus says the LORD God of Israel: ‘Let My people go, that they may hold a feast to Me in the wilderness.’”_(NKJV)

Initially, Pharaoh was not willing to give up his slave labor force, but he paid a big price. Suffering through several plagues, Egypt’s ruler was finally wanting to stop the misery and commanded, “‘Go, serve the Lord your God.”

Realizing he was about to make a big mistake if he let all of his Hebrew slaves leave, Pharaoh asked, “Exactly who is going with you?” On the other hand, if he only released the Hebrew men to go have this feast, he could hold their family’s hostage.^[1]

Moses countered with an unexpected response that blunted Pharaoh’s scheme: “We will go with our young and our old, with our sons and our daughters, and with our sheep and our cattle we will go, because we are to hold a pilgrim feast for the Lord.”^[2]

‘No way!’ was the essence of Pharaoh’s response saying, “‘No! Go, you men only, and serve the Lord, for that is what you want,” then Moses and Aaron were driven out of Pharaoh’s presence.”^[3] The 9^th plague of deep darkness for three full days came next, but Pharaoh still did not relent.

A 10^th plague was now coming to persuade Pharaoh to let the Hebrews go. This time it would include very personal consequences with more major financial impacts.

Livestock value to both the Egyptians and Hebrews was very significant, especially for the enslaved Hebrews. Sheep were the source of clothing, food and milk, even as pets. For a household to lose a single lamb meant losing a valuable commodity.

For the Egyptians, cattle were valued in much the same way as sheep. Cattle were part of the Egyptian religion and represented a status of wealth where losing a significant portion of livestock would have a disastrous affect.^[4]

Leading up to the horrible night of the 10^th plague, God offered protection for the Hebrews if they followed a precise sacrificial ritual. Each family was to choose one of their unblemished lambs, sacrifice it, splash its blood on the door posts of their homes, and roast the lamb for a family feast at sunset.^[5]

At midnight, the angel of death passed over any home with the lamb’s blood splashed on the doorposts thereby sparing the of the Hebrew’s firstborn and their livestock. The 10^th plague was devastating for the Egyptians – every firstborn died including the death of Pharoah’s own son breaking his resolve.

Salvation from the plague of death set the stage for what would become Israel’s first legally mandated Feast of Unleavened observance. Passover was to be observed every year from that time forward:^[6]

^{Ex 12:14}‘So this day shall be to you a memorial; and you shall keep it as a feast to the LORD throughout your generations. You shall keep it as a feast by an everlasting ordinance._(NKJV)

A few weeks later, God handed down the Law to Moses atop Mt. Sinai. The Law defined the observance of three annual Festivals or Feasts and a permanent place to observe the Passover at its appointed time:

^{Lev. 23:}^4-7‘These are the feasts of the LORD, holy convocations which you shall proclaim at their appointed times.

‘On the fourteenth day of the first month at twilight is the LORD’S Passover.

‘And on the fifteenth day of the same month is the Feast of Unleavened Bread to the LORD; seven days you must eat unleavened bread.

‘On the first day you shall have a holy convocation; you shall do no customary work on it. _(NKJV)

Centerpiece of the Passover commenced on Nisan 14 was the sacrifice of the paschal lamb eventually to permanently occur in the place God was yet to reveal.^[7] Following at sunset, Nisan 15, was the Feast of Unleavened Bread featuring the roasted meat of the sacrificial lamb.

Passover was a week-long celebration yet the Festival was intended to be a solemn time in remembrance of God’s miraculous deliverance from slavery and tyranny. The Law’s definition for observing the Passover used similar terms as for the weekly Sabbath, each was called “a holy assembly” or “holy convocation.”^[8]

Found to be innocent by the government rulers Tetrarch Herod and Procurator Pilate, at the urging of the Jewish leadership Jesus was crucified on the first day of Passover observed at its appointed time. Events surrounding the crucifixion of Jesus at the Passover were controlled solely by his archenemies – out of the control of Jesus, his Disciples or any alleged Christian conspirators.

Was the crucifixion of Jesus on Passover, Nisan 15, merely a coincidence or a divinely appointed time?

Updated August 28, 2024.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

NKJV = New King James Version translation.
NET = NETBible translation

REFERENCES:

[1] NET.
[2] NET.
[3] Quotes from NET translation. Exodus 10[iv] Exodus 12.
[4] Benner, Jeff A. “Ancient Hebrew Livestock.” Ancient Hebrew Research Center. 2022. <https://www.ancient-hebrew.org/culture/ancient-hebrew-livestock.htm> Cownie, Emma. Emmafcpwnie.com. 2018. “Why cattle mattered in the Ancient World.” <https://emmafcownie.medium.com/why-cattle-mattered-in-the-ancient-world-4e27b1c37e58> “Cattle in the ancient world of the Bible” Women In The Bible. 2006. <https://womeninthebible.net/bible_daily_life/cattle_ancient_world/#:~:text=Cattle%20were%20an%20important%20status%20symbol.%20In%20biblical,as%20well%20as%20for%20ploughing%2C%20threshing%20and%20transport.> Broyles, Stephen. The Andreas Center. 2010. <https://www.andreascenter.org/Articles/Sheep%20and%20Goats.htm> “Sheep in History. Sheep101.info. 2021. <http://www.sheep101.info/history.html
[5] Mock, Robert. Destination Yisra’el. “The First Pesach in the Land of Egypt.” photo. 2017. <https://destination-yisrael.biblesearchers.com/destination-yisrael/2017/04/the-history-of-the-passover-in-the-days-of-the-nazarene.html&gt
[6] Exodus 12:27; Deuteronomy 16:1-8.
[7] Exodus 12; Deuteronomy 16; Leviticus 23. “Abib” and “Nisan.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011.
[8] Exodus 16:22-23, 29; 20:8-10; Leviticus 23:3. Babylonian Talmud. Rodkinson. 1918. Book 1, Tract Sabbath, Chapters 1-10; Book 2; Erubin, Pesachim, Book 3, Chapter IV, VI, VIII. <https://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/talmud.htm#t03> Edersheim, Alfred. The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah. 1883. Book V, Chapter 15. pp 1382-1392 & pp 1393-1421. <http://philologos.org/__eb-lat/default.htm> Edersheim, Alfred. The Temple – Its Ministry and Services. Chapter 10. 1826 -1889. The NTSLibrary. 2016. <http://www.ntslibrary.com/PDF%20Books/The%20Temple%20by%20Alfred%20Edersheim.pdf> Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6359-friday “Festivals,”“Holy Days,” “Passover,” ”Shabbat,” “Sabbath ” & “Sabbath and Sunday.” 2011. <http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com> “Shabbath.” <https://israelect.com/Come-and-Hear/shabbath/index.html; “Shabbat” and “Festivals. Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com