Tag: Luke 2

Quirinius, Governor of Syria When Jesus Was Born?

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

Quirinius, Governor of Syria When Jesus Was Born?

 

Quirinius – if not for the Nativity account in the Gospel of Luke, his name would be all but forgotten. Governance of Quirinius presents probably the greatest challenge to validating the five tight date parameters established by Luke and Matthew for the birth of Jesus of Nazareth.

In his day Quirinius (Cyrenius in Greek) was a famous, powerful Roman Consul, the highest Senate rank achievable.[1] Included in his resume are stints as a provincial governor in Crete & Cyrene, Galatia, Pamphylia, possibly Asia and was a war hero for his military victories – all prior to 4 BC.[2]

Jewish historical views of Quirinius are quite different. To the Jews, he is known as the infamous governor of Syria who in 6 AD imposed a Roman provincial taxation triggering a Jewish revolt.[3] Understandably, the contemporary Jewish reading audience of Luke would easily recognize a reference to Quirinius.

Luke confirms Matthew‘s statement that Herod was King when Jesus was born. Tightening the timeline, Luke adds two more defining parameters bringing the total to four – Caesar Augustus, his census decree, the reign of King Herod plus a celestial star event. Evidence shows all scenarios align with the 2 BC timeframe leaving Quirinius as the X-factor.[4]

LK 2:1-3 “And it came to pass in those days that a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be registered. This census first took place while Quirinius was governing Syria. So all went to be registered, everyone to his own city.” (NKJV)

Two observations about Quirinius can be pulled from Luke 2:2. “This census first took place while Quirinius was governing Syria.” Aside from the governance of Quirinius, if there was a first registration associated with Quirinius, “This census first took place…” there had to be a second one.[5]

Indeed, there is a second reference. The Books of Acts, the common author of the Gospel of Luke, makes a second reference to a “census”:

ACT 5:37 “After this man [Theudas], Judas of Galilee rose up in the days of the census [apographe], and drew away many people after him. He also perished, and all who obeyed him were dispersed.” (NKJV)

Bringing clarity in the Greek text, the verse contains a rarely used Greek word noun, apographe, meaning “a register; enrollment.” Muddling the situation, English Bible versions translate apographe using five different words – “census,” “registered,” “enrolled,” “numbering,” and “taxed.”[6]

Comparing the two events, Luke’s registration scenario is benign while the Acts scenario is circumstantially different – it involved an uprising. Neither scenario is associated with a Roman lustrum census that was last taken in 8 BC, according to Augustus’ own documented declaration.[7]

According to secular history, a conundrum is posed because Herod’s death year and Quirinius governing in Syria do not sync with the 4 BC timeline. Evidence now strongly suggests Herod’s death occurred during 2 -1 BC potentially changing the equation.

Unique to the Gospels is Luke’s twice-used word hegemoneuo, a specific form of hegemon. Both words have different definition distinctions, yet are typically translated into English as “governor.”

Greek hegemoneuo means “to act as ruler” as in acting with the authority of a governor, a verb.[8] Root word is hegemon, a noun meaning “a leader, that is, chief person (or figuratively place) of a province: — governor, prince, ruler”[9] Luke and Acts uses the hegemon title reference 8 times and the word is used 19 times in the New Testament.

Just twice and only in Luke does the author exclusively use the verb hegemoneuo. Appearing in very close proximity in the text, the word is used to describe responsibilities of two different rulers, Quirinius and Pilate:[10]

LK 2:2 “This census first took place while Quirinius was governing [hegemoneuo] Syria.”

LK 3:1 “Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius Pilate being governor [hegemoneuo] of Judea…” (NKJV)

Pilate was a Prefect and a Procurator in a Roman province appointed by Caesar, not a legate “governor” which required Consul rank.[11] Responsibilities included Roman financial affairs and vested judicial power over life and death decisions, essentially possessing the authority powers of a governor.[12]

Using exactly the same word hegemoneuo, the word is used to describe the responsibilities of Quirinius.[13] In the eyes of the Jews, the Roman distinctions of rank made little difference because both virtually had the same fearful Roman governing authority.

Not alone is Luke treatment of Romans in a governing position in Syria – so did Caesar Augustus and Josephus. Augustus recognized three governing authorities in Syria toward the end of Herod’s reign – two presidents and a procurator.[14]

Caesar, in a letter, instructed Herod to seat three Syrian judges for the murder plot trial of Herod’s two sons. Augustus called out by name Saturninius and Pedanius as the two “presidents” of Syria, and the procurator Volumnius.[15]

“Caesar had ordered the court to be assembled…The presidents set first, as Caesar’s letters had appointed, who were Saturninus, and Pedanius, and their lieutenants that were with them, with whom was the procurator Volumnius.” – Wars of the Jews

A few years later upon Herod’ death, Varus and Sabinus separately rushed to Jerusalem to secure his estate. Josephus identified “Varus, the president of Syria” and Sabinus as “Caesar’s procurator” and “Caesar’s steward for Syrian affairs.”[16]

Josephus also made numerous references to “Saturninus and Volumnius…the presidents of Syria. ” Saturninus was actually the Roman legate governor and Volumnius was the Roman procurator.[17]

Secular history recognizes Saturninus as the legate Roman governor of Syria circa 9-6 BC.[18] Varus was the Roman legate governor from at least 6-4 BC, perhaps into 3 BC and possibly again in 1 BC leaving a complete gap in 2 BC.[19]

Question:  who was the other “president” at the time of Herod’s death? Josephus didn’t say.

Independently, several 19th century historians tackled the Quirinus enigma. Not all were in complete agreement with their conclusions and timelines. Their varied research results were in relative agreement on one point – all agreed Quirinius served in a governing capacity in Syria prior to his infamous 6 AD Roman legate governorship.

Some of these historians concluded that Quirinius first governed in Syria sometime during 6-1 BC. More notably, others narrowed the time frame to the years of 3-2 BC.[20]

Two 20th century archeological discoveries of ancient inscriptions may provide the strongest evidence that Quirinius governed twice in Syria. Research by historian expert Gerard Gertoux concluded these two inscriptions identify Quirinius as the governor of Syria during the 3-1 BC timeframe.[21] One called out Quirinius by name…twice:

“Q[uintus] Aemilius Secundus s[on] of Q[uintus], of the tribe Palatina, who served in the camps of the divine Aug[ustus] under P. Sulpicius Quirinius, legate of Caesar in Syria, decorated with honorary distinctions, prefect of the 1st cohort Aug[usta], prefect of the cohort II Classica. Besides, by order of Quirinius I made the census of 117 thousand citizens of Apamea.” – Titulus Venetus inscription (English translation) [22]

Gertoux makes the case that Quirinius took a special census in 2 BC as part of the Breviarium of Augustus. This census could not be referring to the 8 BC lustrum of the Roman Empire exclusive to Rome nor the 6 AD taxation census taken by Quirinius that was exclusive to Judea. Further, he concluded, a census in Apamea would have required the assistance of Judean King Herod.

Multiple historian’s research indicates Quirinius did govern in Syria at some point during the years of 6-1 BC. Archeological evidence narrows the time frame even more.

Does evidence corroborate Luke’s statement that Quirinius governed in Syria at the time of a census registration decreed by Caesar Augustus while King Herod was alive?

 

Updated December 22, 2023.

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1] KJV. Kurenios <2958> Net.bible.org. <http://classic.net.bible.org/strong.php?id=2958&gt
[2] Gertoux, Gerard. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.”  Titulus Venetus (CIL III; ILS 2683).  Inscription. p 9.  <http://www.academia.edu/3184175/Dating_the_two_Censuses_of_Quirinius>   Consuls.” History of Ancient Rome. 2018. <http://www.unrv.com/government/consuls.php>   “Senatorial Provinces.” History of Ancient Rome. 2018. <http://www.unrv.com/government/senatorial-provinces.php>  “Consul.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2018. <http://www.livius.org/cn-cs/consul/consul.html>  “P. Sulpicius Quirinius.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2018. <http://www.livius.org/su-sz/sulpicius/quirinius.html>  Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. The Complete Works of Josephus. Trans. and commentary. William Whitson. 1850. Book XVIII., Chapter I.1. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false>  Bunson, Matthew.  Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Consuls; Crete and Cyrenaica.” <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624>
[3] Acts 5.  Smallwood, E. Mary.  The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian. 1981. pp 151-156.  <http://books.google.com/books?id=jSYbpitEjggC&lpg=PA151&ots=VWqUOinty4&dq=census%20Syria%20Rome&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false>  Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVIII, Chapters I-IV.
[4] Matthew 2. Luke 1-2.
[5] NRSV. Luke 2. Net.bible.org. Greek text. “protos” <4413>” Lexicon-Concordance Online Bible. n.d. <http://lexiconcordance.com> Smith, William; Wayte, William; Marindin, G.E., Ed. A Dictionary  of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 1890. “apographe.”
[6] Acts 5:37. BibleHub. com. lexicon. “582.” n.d. < https://biblehub.com/lexicon/acts/5-37.htm>  “G0582.” LexiConcordance..com. n.d. <http://lexiconcordance.com/greek/0582.html>  Smith, William; Wayte, William; Marindin, G.E., Ed. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 1890. “apographe.” <https://books.google.com/books?id=Cu89AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA403&lpg=PA403&dq=greek+word+for+census&source=bl&ots=LM1MjmCiJt&sig=1_yjJgyNxcCcSWZvf0QK69IJuMw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx0oPA04DYAhXo6YMKHebvAEwQ6AEIejAK#v=onepage&q=register&f=false> Bunson, Matthew.  Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Censor; Census.” <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624> 
[7] Smallwood. The Jews Under Roman Rule. p. 152.  Ando, Clifford. A Companion to the Roman Empire.  Ed. David s. Potter.  pp 178-179, 186.  2006.  Academia.edu. <https://www.academia.edu/649274/The_Administration_of_the_Provinces>
[8] Net.bible.org. Luke 2:1 footnote #5 and Greek text. “hegemoneuo <2230>”  Lexicon-Concordance Online Bible. Josephus. Antiquities. Book VIII, Chapter XV; Book X, Chapter IV; Book XIV, Chapters IX, XII; Book XVIII, Chapter VI.  Josephus. The Life of Flavius Josephus. n.d.  #9, #17.  Josephus. Wars of the Jews. Book I, Chapter XXVII.3. Josephus. Against Apion. Book II, #22.
[9] Net.bible.org. Luke 2:1 footnote #5 and Greek text. “hegemon <2232>” Lexicon-Concordance Online Bible. Josephus. Antiquities. Book VIII, Chapter XV; Book X, Chapter IV; Book XIV, Chapter IX; XII; Book XVIII, Chapter VI..  Josephus. Life. #9, 17.  Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXVII.  Josephus. Against Apion. Book II, #22.  “Pontius Pilate.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2019. <https://www.livius.org/articles/person/pontius-pilate>  “legate.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. <https://www.britannica.com/topic/legate-Roman-official> Carrier, Richard C. “Herod the Procurator:  Was Herod the Great a Roman Governor of Syria?” 2011. p. 7. <https://www.academia.edu/1203990/Herod_the_Procurator_Was_Herod_the_Great_a_Roman_Governor_of_Syria?email_work_card=view-paper> 
[10] Josephus. Wars. Chapter IX.  Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVII, Chapter XI; Book XVIII, Chapter V. “Tiberius.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2018. <http://www.livius.org/articles/person/tiberius>
[11] “Pontius Pilate.” Livius.org.  “legate.” Encyclopædia Britannica.  Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXIV.6, Book II, Chapter VIII, XIV. Josephus. Antiquities. Book XV, Chapter III,  Book XVII, Chapters IV & XX; Book XVIII, Chapter III; Book XIX. Chapter XIX; Book XX, Chapter I.
[12] “Procurator.” Livius.org.  “Governor (Roman).” Livius.org. <http://www.livius.org/gi-gr/governor/governor.html>  “Procurator.” Merriam-Webster. 2018. <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/procurator> “Procurator.”  Jewish Virtual Library. 2008. <https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/procurator>
[13] Net.bible.org. Luke 2:1 Greek text, footnote #5; “hegemoneuo <2230>”; “hegemon <2232>”; “hegemoneuo #2230” (Greek Word Study).  (Thayer); “hēgemoneuo <2230>” Lexicon-Concordance Online Bible. n.d. <http://lexiconcordance.com/greek/2230.html>
[14] Ramsay, William M.  “Was Christ Born in Bethlehem?”  2010. Biblehub.com. Chapter 11. <http://biblehub.com/library/ramsay/was_christ_born_in_bethlehem/index.html>
[15] Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXVII.  Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVI, Chapter XI.  Bunson, Matthew.  Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Berytus.” <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624>
[16] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVI, Chapter IX; Book XVII Chapters, IX, X.  Josephus. Wars. Book II, Chapter II.  Bunson, Matthew.  Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Judaea.” 2002. <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624>
[17] Josephus. Antiquities. Book XVI, Chapters IX, XI; Book XVII, Chapter IX-XI; Book XX, Chapter XVIII.  Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXI; Book II, Chapter II.  Antiquities.  Josephus. Life. #11.
[18] “Syria.”  Regnal Chronologies.  Doig, Kenneth F.  New Testament Chronology. 1990. Chapter 5.  <http://nowoezone.com/NT_Chronology.htm>   Schurer, Emil. A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ.1890. <http://books.google.com/books?id=BRynO3W9FPcC&pg=PP1#v=snippet&q=Tiberius&f=false>
[19] “Ancient History Sourcebook: Res Gestae Divi Augusti, c. 14 CE.” Davis, William Steams, ed. 1912. <http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/14resgestae.asp>  Ramsay.  Was Christ Born in Bethlehem?  Chapter 11. “Syria.” Regnal Chronologies. n.d. <http://web.raex.com/~obsidian/Syria.html#Syria> Schurer. A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ. Volume 1, page 351.  Martin, Ernest L. The Star of Bethlehem: The Star That Astonished the World. Chapter 10. <http://askelm.com/star/star000.htm#_edn11%3E%20%3Chttp://web.archive.org/web/20170111193244/http://www.askelm.com/star/star001.htm>
[20] Davis, J. “Quirinius.” Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church, Vol. I.  n.d.  Christian Classics Ethereal Library. “Chronology of the Life of Christ.” “The Census of Quirinius.” pp 101-104. 13 July 2005 <http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc2.i.html>  <https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc1/hcc1.i.II_1.16.html>  Ramsay.  Was Christ Born in Bethlehem? Chapter 11.
Schaff. History of the Christian Church, Volume I. “Chronology of the Life of Christ.” Chapter 2, Sec 16.  Sieffert, F. “Census.” The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. Vol. II:  Basilica – Chambers. 1952. <http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/encyc/encyc02/htm/iv.vi.ccxxx.htm>  Tacitus, Gaius Cornelius. The Annals.109 AD. Book III. Trans. Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb, <http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/annals.html>  Smith, William.  A School Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 1857. “Vice’sima.” <https://archive.org/stream/schooldictionary00smituoft#page/n9/mode/2up/search/publicani>  “Cilicia.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2018. <http://www.livius.org/cg-cm/cilicia/cilicia.html>  “Cilicia.” UNRV History |The Roman Empire. 2017. <http://www.unrv.com/provinces/cilicia.php>  “Cilicia.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2014. <http://www.livius.org/cg-cm/cilicia/cilicia.html>  Mommsen, Theodor. The Provinces of the Roman Empire from Caesar to Diocletian. Volume 1. 1887. Chapter VIII., pp 347 – 397. <http://books.google.com/books?id=_WAKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=asia%20minor&f=false>  Boak , Arthur Edward Romilly.  A History of Rome to 565 A. D. 1921. p 277. 2010. <http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32624/32624-h/32624-h.html>  Schurer. A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ. Volume 1, pp 351-354.  “Syria.” Regnal Chronologies.  “Varus, Quintilius.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14647-varus-quintilius>  Doig. New Testament Chronology. Chapter 5.  Schurer. A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ. Volume 1, pp 352-353.  “List of Roman governors of Syria.” Wikipedia.com. 2018. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_governors_of_Syria>   Gertoux. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.” p 8.  Bunson. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Consuls.”
[21] Gertoux. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.” pp 3-5. Gertoux, Gerard. “Dating the death of Herod.” 2015. p 1. <http://www.academia.edu/2518046/Dating_the_death_of_Herod>
[22] Gertoux. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.” Titulus Venetus (CIL III; ILS 2683).  Inscription. p 4.

An Unusual Roman Census Decree By Caesar Augustus

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

An Unusual Roman Census Decree By Caesar Augustus

 

Traditional Nativity stories refer to the “census” decreed by Caesar Augustus. It was the motivation for Joseph to take Mary in her late eighth month of pregnancy to travel to Bethlehem 90-miles away where Gospel Nativity accounts of Matthew and Luke report she gave birth to Jesus of Nazareth.

LK 2:1-3 “Now in those days a decree went out from Caesar Augustus, that a census be taken of all the inhabited earth. This was the first census taken while Quirinius was governor of Syria. And everyone was on his way to register for the census, each to his own city.” NASB

Derived from the Latin word censēre is the English word “census.” The word “census” is not used in many Gospel English translations for good reason – nowhere in the original Greek texts is found the Latin word censēre.[1]

As a parallel comparison in the four voluminous works by Jewish historian Josephus, only one similar event is referenced in Antiquities of the Jews. Moses “numbered” the Hebrew army, but Josephus didn’t use the word “census.”[2]

Only two possibilities for Greek equivalents are words apographo and apographe, each with very similar meanings.[3] One word is a process activity and the other is a document record while both words have been interchangeably translated in English Bibles with five variations of “census,” “registered,” “enrolled,” “numbering,” and “taxed.”[4]

As a verb in Luke 2:1 and 3, apographo means an activity to “write off (a copy or list), i.e. enrollment,” an enrollment activity. Used in Luke 2:2 as a noun, apographe is “an enrollment, by implication an assessment,” an enrollment record – activity vs. record.

Res gestae divi Augusti

Backdrop to the historical context of a Roman census are the multiple facets associated with a censēre where enumeration of Roman citizens was the prized objective. Augustus took three lustrum Roman censuses during his 44-year reign. In Caesar’s own words:

“When I was consul the fifth time (29 B.C.E.), I increased the number of patricians by order of the people and senate. I read the roll of the senate three times, and in my sixth consulate (28 B.C.E.) I made a census of the people with Marcus Agrippa as my colleague. I conducted a lustrum, after a forty-one year gap, in which lustrum were counted 4,063,000 heads of Roman citizens. Then again, with consular imperium I conducted a lustrum alone when Gaius Censorinus and Gaius Asinius were consuls (8 B.C.E.), in which lustrum were counted 4,233,000 heads of Roman citizens. And the third time, with consular imperium, I conducted a lustrum with my son Tiberius Caesar as colleague, when Sextus Pompeius and Sextus Appuleius were consuls (14 A.C.E.), in which lustrum were counted 4,937,000 of the heads of Roman citizens.” – The Deeds of Divine Augustus [5]

Roman lustrums involved a lesser known religious component. A sacred ceremony at the conclusion of a lustrum involved the Censor offering a sacrifice to the god Mars on behalf of Rome’s citizens.[6]

Taxation comes into play because data collection from a censēre was typically used as the basis to initiate a tax valuation, an assessment or appraisal. A Roman procurator was then responsible for actual tax collection activities managed through local authorities.[7]

Publicani purchased franchise rights to collect taxes through an auction held in Rome.[8] Abuses of tax collection were rife, a natural consequence of the Roman tax collection system.

A franchise inherently involves making a profit, but Rome didn’t care about how the proceeds were collected as long as the government received its expected revenue. This opened the door to dishonest and abusive behaviors to collect more revenue than was necessary by the franchise owner’s tax collection agents known as publicans, the despised tax collectors of the Gospels such as was the Disciple Matthew.[9]

Aligning with secular historical timelines seems to pose a conflict with these two Gospels. Historians, religious scholars, and detractors take varied and opposing positions; however, virtually all believe both Herod and Augustus had to be alive when Jesus was born. Further complicating the picture is the controversy surrounding the date of Herod’s death.

Luke corroborates Matthew as Herod being alive and adds two more dating parameters – the “census” and Quirinius factors.[10] According to Luke, the birth of Jesus occurred when Quirinius governed in Syria making the year 8 BC too soon under known or possible secular historical scenarios for Quirinius to be a governor.

Secular history places Herod’s death in 4 BC based on reckoning from the printings of Josephus’ Antiquities. Reckoning is based on the anchor date of the 20th year of the reign of Tiberius in-spite-of two other entries in Antiquities and Wars recording that Tiberius died in his 22nd year.[11]

Major world libraries holding handwritten manuscript copies of Antiquities predating the printings were personally investigated and reviewed by historian buff David Beyer. He discovered that all 31 copies of existing handwritten manuscripts actually say Herod’s death occurred during the 22nd year of Tiberius, not the 20th year.[12]

Not uncommon were errors in transcribing manuscript documents according to Westcott and Hort, experts in literary analysis. The 2-year difference translates into Herod’s death occurring in 2 BC or early 1 BC, not 4 BC.[13]

Dr. Earnest Martin’s research points to a special set of circumstances in 2 BC.[14] Rome was in the height of its glory commemorating the 750th anniversary of its founding and was the same year as the Silver Jubilee reign of Caesar Augustus.

Roman history records the Senate bestowed upon their emperor the honor of Pater Patriae, an honor Augustus considered to be one the highlights of his reign listed in The Deeds of Divine Augustus. Martin asserts that to underscore this honor, the Roman Senate had Augustus decree a “registration” to be taken of the entire Roman Empire claiming allegiance to him as Pater Patriae.[15]

Historian expert Gerard Gertoux conducted independent research that corroborates the findings of Beyer and Martin. Gertoux concluded that Luke’s “census of the world” occurred in 2 BC and was not for taxation purposes.

Gertoux determined that Caesar’s motivation for the “census” was to quantify the entire resources of Rome as part of his breviarium totius imperii. Eventually this was to be read at his funeral along with the unveiling of his Res gestae divi Augusti (The Deeds of Divine Augustus).[16]

Research evidence produced by Beyer, Martin and Gertoux establishes a 2 BC timeline for a special “census” registration decreed by Augustus that occurred before the death of King Herod in late 2 BC or early 1 BC. These findings are consistent with dating parameters documented in the accounts of Matthew and Luke – Herod’s reign; reign of Augustus and his census decree; governing of Quirinius in Syria plus one other dating parameter, the Star corroborated by NASA data.

Perhaps the strongest evidence of Luke’s reference of a registration decree issued by Augustus has nothing to do with history and is best presented with a question.

How likely is it that Joseph would risk taking Mary, a young almost 9-month pregnant teenage girl, away from her comfortable home and family on a difficult, treacherous week’s long journey on the back of a donkey to Bethlehem 90 miles away knowing it was quite possible that Mary could give birth in the wilderness along the way – unless the Town Crier’s announcement of Augustus’ decree gave them no other choice?[17]

 

Updated January 26, 2024.

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

REFERENCES:

[1] “Census.”  Merriam-Webster. 2018. <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/census
[2] Josephus, Flavius. Antiquities of the Jews. Book 3, Chapter 12.4. The Complete Works of Josephus. 1850. <http://books.google.com/books?id=e0dAAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false>
[3] Luke 2:1-4.  Net.bible.org. Greek text. “apographo <583>” and “aprographe <582>.” n.d. <http://lexiconcordance.com>  Smith, William; Wayte, William; Marindin, G.E., Ed. A Dictionary  of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 1890. “apographe.” <https://books.google.com/books?id=Cu89AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA403&lpg=PA403&dq=greek+word+for+census&source=bl&ots=LM1MjmCiJt&sig=1_yjJgyNxcCcSWZvf0QK69IJuMw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx0oPA04DYAhXo6YMKHebvAEwQ6AEIejAK#v=onepage&q=register&f=false>
[4] NASV, NRSV, ASV, BBE, KJV.  Bunson, Matthew.  Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Censor; Census.” <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624> 
[5] Augustus, Caesar.  The Deeds of the Devine Augustus (Res gestae divi Augusti). #8. Trans. Thomas Bushnell. 1998. <http://classics.mit.edu/Augustus/deeds.html>
[6] “Lustrum.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2018. <http://www.livius.org/concept/lustrum>  Bunson. Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Censor, Census.”
[7] Smallwood, E. Mary.  The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian. 2nd Ed. 1981. pp 151-152. http://books.google.com/books?id=jSYbpitEjggC&lpg=PA151&ots=VWqUOinty4&dq=census%20Syria%20Rome&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false Smith, William. “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.” 1901. 3rd Ed., Vol. 1. “Censor”, “Publicani” and “Vectigalia.” <https://books.google.com/books?id=Cu89AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA403&lpg=PA403&dq=greek+word+for+census&source=bl&ots=LM1MjmCiJt&sig=1_yjJgyNxcCcSWZvf0QK69IJuMw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx0oPA04DYAhXo6YMKHebvAEwQ6AEIejAK#v=onepage&q=census&f=false “Procurator.” Livius.org. Ed. Jona Lendering. 2018. <http://www.livius.org/concept/procurator>
[8] Smallwood.  The Jews Under Roman Rule. p 152.
[9] Matthew 9; Luke 5. Smith, W. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. “Censor.” “Publicani” and “Vectigalia.”
10] Matthew 2; Luke 1. Smallwood. The Jews Under Roman Rule. Appendix E, p 568.
[11] Josephus.  Antiquities of the Jews. Book XVIII, Chapter II. 2, VI.5.  Josephus. Wars. Book I, Chapter XXXIII.8. Chapters IV.6 and V.4.  Bernegger, P.M. “Affirmation of Herod’s Death in 4 B.C.” Journal of Theological Studies Vol. 34, no 2. 1983. pp 526-531. <http://www.redatedkings.com/postings/Bernegger.pdf> Schurer, Emil. A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ. Volume 1. 1890. pp 464-465, footnote 165. <http://books.google.com/books?id=BRynO3W9FPcC&pg=PP1#v=snippet&q=Tiberius&f=false> Doig, Kenneth F.  New Testament Chronology. 1990. Chapter 4.<http://nowoezone.com/NT_Chronology.htm>  Jachowski, Raymond. Academa.Edu. “The Death of Herod the Great and the Latin Josephus: Re-Examining the Twenty-Second Year of Tiberius.” n.d. <https://www.academia.edu/19833193/The_Death_of_Herod_the_Great_and_the_Latin_Josephus_Re_Examining_the_Twenty_Second_Year_of_Tiberius> 
[12] Chase, Jeffrey S. “The Gutenberg Printing Press.” n.d. <http://www.cs.duke.edu/~chase/cps49s/press-summary.html>
[13] Beyer, David W.  “Josephus Reexamined:  Unraveling the Twenty-Second Year of Tiberius.” pp 90-93, 95-96.  <http://books.google.com/books?id=mWnYvI5RdLMC&lpg=PP1&dq=isbn%3A0865545820&pg=PA85#v=snippet&q=beyer&f=false> Wolfram, Chuck. “The Herodian Dynasty.” 2004. <http://web.archive.org/web/20151013221102/http:/freepages.history.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~cwolfram/herod> Westcott, Brooke F. & Hort, John A. The New Testament in the Original Greek – Introduction | Appendix. pp 4-7. 1907. <https://books.google.com/books?id=gZ4HAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+New+Testament+in+the+Original+Greek&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiOjMvk3fjXAhUE5yYKHSTHC5wQ6wEIOjAD#v=onepage&q=The%20New%20Testament%20in%20the%20Original%20Greek&f=false> Martin, Ernest L. The Star of Bethlehem – The Star That Astonished the World. Chapter 13. <http://askelm.com/star/star000.htm#_edn11>  Jachowski. “The Death of Herod the Great and the Latin Josephus: Re-Examining the Twenty-Second Year of Tiberius.”
[14] Gertoux, Gerard. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.”  n.d.  pp 6-7. <http://www.academia.edu/3184175/Dating_the_two_Censuses_of_Quirinius>  Stevenson, Tom R. “Acceptance of the Title Pater Patriae in 2 BC.” <https://www.academia.edu/21863060/Acceptance_of_the_Title_Pater_Patriae_in_2_BC> 
[15] Augustus. The Deeds of the Devine Augustus. #35.  “pater patriae.”  Nova Roma. 2017. <www.novaroma.org/nr/Pater_Patriae_(Nova_Roma)>  “pater patriae.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2018. <https://www.britannica.com/topic/pater-patriae> Martin. The Star of Bethlehem. Chapter 13.  Mosley, John. “Common Errors in ‘Star of Bethlehem’ Planetarium Shows.” Reprint from Planetarian, Third Quarter 1981. <http://www.ips-planetarium.org/?page=a_mosley1981> Gertoux. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.” p 7.
[16] Gertoux. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.”  pp 6-7.  Davis, William Steams, ed.  Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources. Vol. II: Rome and the West. 1912-13. pp. 166-172. <http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/14resgestae.asp>  Schaff, Philip. “Chronology of the Life of Christ.”  History of the Christian Church, Volume I: Apostolic Christianity. A.D. 1-100. 1890. Chapter 2, Sec 16.  <http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc1.i.II_1.16.html>
[17] “Distance between Nazareth and Bethlehem.” DistanceFromTo.net. 2018. <https://www.distancefromto.net/between/Nazareth/Bethlehem> “What is the distance between Nazareth and Bethlehem?” Reference.com. 2017. <https://www.reference.com/geography/distance-between-nazareth-bethlehem-6ac7e95c8360c7c7#> Bing.com/maps. Modern day mileage calculation from Bethlehem to Nablus (Nazareth) <https://binged.it/2mNpBy8>  Smallwood, E. Mary.  The Jews Under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian. p 152. 1981.<http://books.google.com/books?id=jSYbpitEjggC&lpg=PA151&ots=VWqUOinty4&dq=census%20Syria%20Rome&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false>  Tarwacka, Anna. “The consequences of avoiding census in Roman law.” 2013. <https://www.academia.edu/5525859/The_consequences_of_avoiding_census_in_Roman_law>

 

 

A Game-Changing Proclamation in Nazareth

Posted on by K.B. Vogelman

A Game-Changing Proclamation in Nazareth

 

Highly unlikely was that Jesus would be born any place other than Nazareth. The angel, Gabriel, who visited Mary announcing her supernatural conception, did not instruct her to go anywhere else to bear her child and there was no reason to think otherwise.

Mary was expected to give birth at home – most certainly not in a stone enclave used to shelter livestock in the faraway town of Bethlehem.[1] Nearly 9 months pregnant, she would have been looking forward to having the support of her husband Joseph, family and friends over the few remaining days when that special moment would arrive.

Suddenly and unexpectedly, a Town Crier, known as a praeco in Latin, shouted out a proclamation that changed history…and Mary’s destiny. He announced a decree from none other than Roman Caesar Augustus just days before Mary was to give birth.[2] It was a game-changer having an immediate major impact on Joseph and Mary.

LK 2: 1-3 “And it came to pass in those days that a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be registered. This census first took place while Quirinius was governing Syria. So all went to be registered, everyone to his own city.” NKJV

Traditional Nativity stories cite a “census” decree issued by Caesar Augustus was announced by the praeco. Perhaps surprisingly, the word “census” is not used in many of the English Gospel translations.

Translating Greek to English has its challenges and Luke’s Nativity story is a prime example. The difficulty for translators is capturing the correct distinctions in the English translation by relying, at least to some degree, on their contextual interpretation of the text.[3]

Greek for “census” is kensos meaning “tax” which does not appear in Luke’s Greek text. Used only four times in the Bible, kensos is used exclusively by the author of Matthew, a former tax collector, where each time is specifically in the context of “tax” and not related to the Nativity story.[4] Latin for “census” is the word censēre which is not found anywhere in New Testament Greek texts nor any works by historian Josephus during the Roman era.[5]

First and third verses of Luke chapter 2 contains the Greek word apographo, a verb meaning an activity to “write off (a copy or list), i.e. enrollment.”[6] Caesar’s decree initiated an action to make a list of the population in the Roman Empire by conducting an enrollment process. It has been translated into English in various Bible versions as “census,” “registration,” “enrolled,” “numbering,” and “taxed.”[7]

Verse 2 uses the Greek word apographe, a noun meaning “an enrollment, by implication an assessment.”[8] It refers to the actual documented record – a written enrollment register or listing resulting from the enrollment activity initiated by Caesar’s decree.

A Roman “census” was not just used for taxation assessments per se. Rather, it was used to enumerate the population; establish a public registry; identify Roman citizens; and size military needs.[9] Oft overlooked, it required an oath to be given at the time of registration that is not unlike today’s legal agreements and ULAs required for various email, mobile phone and other online services.

Common to all five English translation variations of Augustus’ decree have the characteristics of taking an action that required an oath; enumerated the population; and produced a documented enrollment registration or a listing that was later used for taxation purposes. All translations are thus consistent with a typical Roman census registration process.[10]

Informing the people of the town, the announcement by the praeco of Augustus’ decree told them when and where to appear for the registration.[11] Compliance was not optional – failure to comply could result in loss of property, slavery, imprisonment or even death.[12]

LK 2: 4-6 “Joseph also went up from Galilee, out of the city of Nazareth, into Judea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem, because he was of the house and lineage of David, to be registered with Mary, his betrothed wife, who was with child. So it was,that while they were there, the days were completed for her to be delivered.”NKJV

Announcement of the decree by the praeco came at the tail end of months of Roman government planning and implementation throughout the vast Empire.[13] Interestingly, if the announcement had occurred just a week later or a couple of weeks earlier, as very easily could have happened, Jesus would have been born in Nazareth.

Timing of the proclamation, instead, set up a unique confluence of events already set in motion that was soon to take place in Bethlehem. Augustus’ registration decree compelled Joseph and Mary to do the unthinkable. 

Terrain between Nazareth & Bethlehem

On short notice at the point when Mary was ready to give birth to her baby, the couple set out on the long, 90-mile trek on foot facing the dangers and risks that came with walking on the winding and hilly path through the wilderness to Bethlehem.[14] Both knew that Mary would give birth before they returned to Nazareth.

Meanwhile, Magi from a foreign country were planning a month’s long journey to Jerusalem not knowing they would eventually also end up in Bethlehem…a small town where neither they nor Joseph and Mary had planned to be. King Herod would actually send the Magi to Bethlehem to find the baby “King of the Jews” as part of a plot to kill him.

Was the timing of the praeco’s announcement of Caesar’s decree merely a coincidence that unexpectedly changed the birthplace of Jesus from Nazareth to Bethlehem, the birthplace of King David, or was it a fulfillment of Micah’s Messiah prophecy?

 

Updated December 14, 2023.

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REFERENCES:

[1] Finkel, Michael.  “Bethlehem 2007 A.D.” National Geographic.  December, 2007.
[2] Smith, William. “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.” 3rd Ed., Vol. 1. 1901. “Census.” Google Books. <https://books.google.com/books?id=Cu89AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA403&lpg=PA403&dq=greek+word+for+census&source=bl&ots=LM1MjmCiJt&sig=1_yjJgyNxcCcSWZvf0QK69IJuMw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx0oPA04DYAhXo6YMKHebvAEwQ6AEIejAK#v=onepage&q=census&f=false>  Livius, Titus. The History of Rome.  Book 33, #28. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0144:book=33:chapter=28&highlight=crier>  Pliny the Elder.  The Natural History. 1.Dedication C. Plinius Secundus to His Friend Titus Vespasian. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0137:book=1:chapter=dedication&highlight=crier#note-link34>  Gaffiot, Felix. Dictionnaire Faffiot. “praeco” drawing. 1934. <http://digital-gaffiot.sourceforge.net/p.html>
[3] Hu, Shuqin. “Context in Translation.” Journal of Language Teaching and Research. 2010. Vol. 1, No. #, pp 325-325. <http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol01/03/25.pdf>  “Importance of Context in Translation.” OneHourTranslation.com. 2015. <https://www.onehourtranslation.com/translation/blog/importance-context-translation>
[4] Net.Bible.org. kensos <2778>.  http://classic.net.bible.org/strong.php?id=2778>; Search results, <http://classic.net.bible.org/search.php?search=greek_strict_index:2778>  Strong, James, LL.D., S.T.D.  The New Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible. “2778 kensos.” 1990.  “G2778.” Lexicon-Concordance Online Bible n.d. <http://lexiconcordance.com/greek/2778.html>
[5] “Census.”  Merriam-Webster. 2017. <https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/census>  Bunson, Matthew.  Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. “Censor; Census.”  <https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780816045624> 
[6] Net.bible.org. Luke Greek text. Strong, James. “apographo <583> (Greek).” The New Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible. 1990.  Smith, William; Wayte, William; Marindin, G.E., Ed. A Dictionary  of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 1890. “apographe.” <https://books.google.com/books?id=Cu89AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA403&lpg=PA403&dq=greek+word+for+census&source=bl&ots=LM1MjmCiJt&sig=1_yjJgyNxcCcSWZvf0QK69IJuMw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx0oPA04DYAhXo6YMKHebvAEwQ6AEIejAK#v=onepage&q=register&f=false>
[7] NASV, NRSV, ASV, BBE, KJV.
[8] Net.bible.org. Greek text.  Strong. “aprographe <582> (Greek).”  The New Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible.
[9] Smith, William. “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.” 3rd Ed., Vol. 1. 1901. “Census.” Augustus, Caesar. The Deeds of the Devine Augustus. #8. <http://classics.mit.edu/Augustus/deeds.html> Cicero, M. Tullius. “For Marcus Caelius.” #32. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0020:text=Cael.:chapter=32&highlight=census>  Cicero. “For Milo.” #27. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0020:text=Mil.:chapter=27&highlight=census>  Cicero. “For Archias.” #5. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0019:text=Arch.:chapter=5&highlight=censors>  Livius. The History of Rome. Book 9, #19. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0026:book=9:chapter=19&highlight=census>  Livius. The History of Rome. Book 43, #14. <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0144:book=43:chapter=14&highlight=censors>
[10] Net.bible.org. “proserchomai <4334>”; “telones <5057>; “telonion <5058>”; phoros <5411>; “kensos <2778>”.
[11] Smith, William. “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.” 3rd Ed., Vol. 1. 1901. “Census.”  “Paternity.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11939-paternity>
[12] “incense.”  Merriam-Webster.  Peck, Harry Thurston. Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898). “Incensus.” <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0062:entry=incensus-harpers&highlight=incensus>  Smith, W. “Censor.” Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities.  Tarwacka, Anna. “The consequences of avoiding census in Roman law.” 2013. <https://www.academia.edu/5525859/The_consequences_of_avoiding_census_in_Roman_law> 
[13] Gertoux, Gerard. “Dating the two Censuses of Quirinius.” n.d. Academia.edu.  <http://www.academia.edu/3184175/Dating_the_two_Censuses_of_Quirinius>  Heinrich, Bill. Mysteries of the Messiah. 2016. “The Registration (Census).” <https://www.mysteriesofthemessiah.net/2016/01/04-03-09-bethlehem-c-6-5-b-c-the-registration-or-census/#_ftnref3>  Tarwacka, Anna. “The consequences of avoiding census in Roman law.” 2013. <https://www.academia.edu/5525859/The_consequences_of_avoiding_census_in_Roman_law>
[14] “Paternity.” Jewish Encyclopedia. 2011. <http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11939-paternity> “What is the distance between Nazareth and Bethlehem?” Reference.com. 2017. <https://www.reference.com/geography/distance-between-nazareth-bethlehem-6ac7e95c8360c7c7#>  “Distance between Nazareth and Bethlehem.” DistanceFromTo.net. 2017. <https://www.distancefromto.net/between/Nazareth/Bethlehem>